Multivalent vaccines for rabies virus and coronaviruses

ABSTRACT

The present disclosure provides methods and compositions for inducing an immune response that confers dual protection against infections by either or both of a rabies virus and a coronavirus, and/or which can be used therapeutically for an existing infection with rabies virus and/or a coronavirus to treat at least one symptom thereof and/or to neutralize or clear the infecting agents. In particular, the present disclosure provides a recombinant rabies virus vector comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding at least one coronavirus immunogenic glycoprotein fragment, as well as pharmaceutical compositions comprising the vaccine vectors.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/091,005, filed on Oct. 3, 2018, which is the national phase application filed under 35 U.S.C. § 371 claiming benefit to International Patent Application No. PCT/US2017/025623, filed on Mar. 31, 2017, which is entitled to priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/318,087, filed on Apr. 4, 2016, each of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety.

GOVERNMENT FUNDING

Research supporting this application was carried out by the United States of America as represented by the Secretary, Department of Health and Human Services.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

The present application hereby incorporates by reference the entire contents of the text file named “205961-0033-01US_Sequence_Listing.txt” in ASCII format. The text file containing the Sequence Listing of the present application was created on Nov. 12, 2021 and is 257,192 bytes in size.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention

The present disclosure relates generally to the field of vaccines and to methods and compositions for treating and/or immunizing against viral infections. In particular, the present disclosure relates to multivalent vaccines as a single therapeutic or immunization agent against infections with one or both of a rabies virus and/or a Coronavirus, such as Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV).

2. Background

Coronaviridae is a family of viruses (e.g., MERS-CoV and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS-CoV)) that primarily infect the upper respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts of mammals and birds, and that are responsible for acute and chronic diseases of the respiratory, hepatic, gastrointestinal and neurological systems. Coronaviruses are enveloped positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses with a nucleocapsid of helical symmetry and virions with a crown-like appearance. The genomes of coronaviruses range from about 26 to about 32 kilobases.

The virions of each coronavirus are approximately 100 nm with a crown-like appearance because of the club-shaped spike (S) proteins projecting from the surface of the envelope. The spike protein is the viral membrane protein that is responsible for cell entry and includes an S1 domain, which is responsible for binding the cell surface receptor, and an S2 domain, which is a membrane-anchored subunit.

Upon entering an infected cell, coronaviruses transcribe their RNA and the viruses replicate in the cytoplasm of the infected cell. Replication is mediated by the synthesis of an antisense RNA strand, which is provided as a template for additional viral genomes and transcription. The viruses then assemble and released from the infected cell.

The MERS-CoV is a recently emerged highly pathogenic human coronavirus. Since its identification in 2012, MERS-CoV has caused over 1700 infections with a case fatality rate of approximately 35%. According to epidemiological and sequencing evidence, MERS-CoV is a zoonotic virus that transmits to humans via the Egyptian Tomb Bat and one-humped camels. A short piece of the MERS-CoV genome was found in an Egyptian Tomb bat sample while several studies have found infectious MERS-CoV, MERS-CoV RNA, and anti-MERS-CoV antibodies in camels in the Middle East and Africa. The spread of MERS-CoV from animal reservoir-to-human has been epidemiologically linked, and human-to-human spread has been observed in hospital settings in the Middle East and South Korea. The exact mechanism of zoonotic or human-to-human transmission has yet to be established, however it is presumed to be transmitted by respiratory secretions or small respiratory droplets.

The approximately 30 kilobase single-strand, positive sense RNA genome of MERS-CoV encodes 10 proteins: two replicase proteins, three structural proteins (E, N, and M), a surface (spike) glycoprotein (S), and five nonstructural proteins.

The human disease that follows MERS-CoV infection is also poorly understood. The most severe MERS patients present with fever, lower respiratory tract symptoms, malaise, and often pneumonia. Chest X-rays and CT scans provide evidence of severe lung inflammation that leads to reduced lung function and death in approximately 35% of cases.

Research has focused on developing MERS-CoV countermeasures, and several groups have identified drugs, vaccines, antibodies, and other therapeutics that are effective in vitro and in small animal models. In related work, researchers have also developed various vaccine platforms that are effective in small animal models for another human pathogenic coronavirus: SARS-CoV. Recently, researchers have developed several promising approaches for a MERS-CoV vaccine; however, no vaccines have entered clinical trials or are approved for use in humans or other animals.

Most vaccine design has focused on the major immunodominant antigen, the Spike (S) protein located on the surface of the virion, which serves as the ligand for the MERS-CoV receptor dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4, also known as CD26). MERS-CoV S is a transmembrane glycoprotein that is cleaved into S1 and S2 domains. Virus neutralizing antibodies (VNA), which are produced in response to infection or vaccination with MERS-CoV S, neutralize virus infection in vitro and protect lungs from infection in mouse models of disease. Vaccine approaches have utilized MERS-CoV S protein either as full-length S protein or as recombinant S protein from E. coli or insect cells formulated as nanoparticles. Other platforms have used plasmid-based expression or expressed spike variants in viral vectors, like the modified vaccine virus Ankara (MVA) or adenoviruses-expressing MERS-CoV S. Each of these different MERS-CoV vaccine approaches comes with individual strengths and weaknesses, such as ease of production, immunogenicity, potential adverse effects, and residual pathogenicity. These factors must be balanced in order to create a vaccine that is ultimately feasible for use in animals or humans.

For example, several different vaccines against MERS-CoV are currently in development, but none of them are available for use. As for all vaccines, major considerations for their use include cost, safety, and immunogenicity. Viral vectors have been shown to be highly effective, but safety concerns do exist. For instance, although different adenoviruses expressing MERS-CoV S or S1 have been found immunogenic in mice, concerns include pre-existing immunity and the longevity of the induced immune responses, at least for such vectors like Ad5. Pre-existing immunity is not a major concern for MVA-based vectors, which are replication-deficient in humans, but they may not be effective without multiple inoculations. DNA vaccines or recombinant MERS-CoV S protein-based vaccines are the safest for immunocompromised individuals. DNA vaccines, however, require relatively large amounts of DNA (e.g. 0.5-2 mg) and multiple inoculations in order to induce potent immune responses in mice and rhesus macaques. Other approaches with recombinant S protein or subunit thereof have also been successfully studied as MERS-CoV vaccines. Lastly, DNA vaccination followed by boosting with recombinant protein is protective in rhesus macaques. Whereas all of these approaches have shown encouraging results, it remains to be seen whether they translate to a human MERS-CoV vaccine.

As such, there is a need for the development of additional vaccine candidates for treating or immunizing against coronaviruses, e.g. MERS-CoV. A Rhabdovirus-based vaccine possesses a balance of factors that could prove effective for a MERS-CoV vaccine. Rhabdovirus-vectored vaccines based on rabies virus (RABV) and vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) have been studied for several human pathogens. More recently both RABV and VSV have been successfully utilized as Ebola virus vaccines (EBOV) and both approaches are either close to clinical trials (RABV) or have already entered phase 2 clinical trials (VSV). Whereas the VSV-based vaccines are mostly based on live, replication-competent VSV expressing the foreign protein of interest, the RABV vaccine platform is based on live and highly attenuated RABV vaccine strains or inactivated RABV virions carrying foreign proteins incorporated into the viral envelope. Live-attenuated and inactivated RABV-EBOV have been utilized successfully against EBOV. In particular, vaccines based on inactivated RABV are widely used and safe for humans whereas vaccines based on either infectious or inactivated RABV are shown to be safe for animals. As dual vaccines, RABV-based vectors induce neutralizing antibodies against both the rabies virus and the target pathogen. The live RABV vaccine is widely used in wild-life animals and has successfully eliminated rabies in Western Europe. Meanwhile, about 15 million doses of inactivated RABV vaccines are used successfully in humans every year.

SUMMARY

The present disclosure relates to novel recombinant vaccine constructs that are based on genetically modifying a rabies virus vaccine vector to express one or more coronavirus immunogenic polypeptides, e.g., an MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV glycoprotein (e.g., spike (S) glycoprotein), such that humoral and/or cellular immune responses are induced against infection by a rabies virus and/or a coronavirus upon administering a recombinant vaccine construct of the disclosure or a recombinant virion based thereon. Preferably, the rabies virus vaccine vector is attenuated to remove or mitigate its capacity for neurological damage to a safe level. The disclosure also provides compositions and methods for immunizing against or treating infections by either or both a rabies virus and a coronavirus, e.g., MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV. The recombinant vaccine constructs of the disclosure may be referred to as “bivalent” or “multivalent” because they are as a single construct capable of simultaneous induction of an immune response against two or more viral pathogens, e.g., rabies virus and MERS-CoV. The vaccine constructs of the disclosure may be used prophylactically, i.e., to induce a humoral and/or cellular immune response as protection against a subsequent infection or challenge by either or both a rabies virus and/or a coronavirus, or used therapeutically, i.e., to induce a humoral and/or cellular immune response to aid in neutralizing or clearing a preexisting infection by either or both a rabies virus and a coronavirus.

Thus, the present disclosure relates to methods and compositions for use in inducing an immune response that confers dual protection against infections by either or both of a rabies virus and a coronavirus, and/or which can be used therapeutically for an existing infection with rabies virus and/or a coronavirus to treat at least one symptom thereof and/or to neutralize or clear the infecting agents.

Thus, in one aspect, the present disclosure provides a recombinant rabies virus vector comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof of at least one coronavirus. Each immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof can contain a truncation of a coronavirus glycoprotein, e.g. a c-terminal truncation of a spike protein, or a chimeric protein comprising an S1 domain of a spike protein and a membrane anchor. In an embodiment, the c-terminal truncation of a spike protein includes an S1 domain of the spike protein. In an additional embodiment, a range of about 15 to about 35 amino acids are removed in the c-terminal truncation (e.g., about 16 amino acids to about 23 amino acids, about 17 to about 21 amino acids, about 25 to about 33 amino acids, about 27 to about 31 amino acids, about 19 amino acids, or about 29 amino acids). The membrane anchor can be from a virus other than a coronavirus, e.g., RABV. In a particular embodiment, the membrane anchor is derived from the RABV glycoprotein (G), e.g. the membrane anchor can include a portion of at least one of an ectodomain, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic domain of the RABV glycoprotein.

In a particular aspect, the present disclosure provides a recombinant rabies virus vector comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof of at least one coronavirus and/or a chimeric protein comprising at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof of at least one coronavirus.

In yet another aspect, the present disclosure provides a multivalent vaccine that is effective to protect against infection with one or both a rabies virus and a coronavirus, comprising a recombinant rabies virus vector that expresses at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof of at least one coronavirus.

In still another aspect, the present disclosure provides a vaccine composition that comprises at least one multivalent vaccine that is effective to protect against infection with one or both a rabies virus and a coronavirus, comprising a recombinant rabies virus vector that expresses at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof of at least one coronavirus. In an embodiment, the vaccine composition further comprises a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

In another aspect still, the present disclosure provides a method of inducing an immune response protective against an infection by one or both of a coronavirus and a rabies virus in a subject, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a multivalent vaccine comprising a recombinant rabies virus vaccine vector that expresses at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof of at least one coronavirus.

In a further aspect, the disclosure provides a method of inducing neutralizing antibodies against a coronavirus and/or a rabies virus in a subject infected with or having been exposed to either or both of said viruses, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a multivalent vaccine comprising a recombinant rabies virus vaccine vector that expresses at least one immunogenic protein or fragment thereof derived from at least one coronavirus glycoprotein.

In yet a further aspect, the disclosure involves a method of treating a subject infected with a coronavirus and/or a rabies virus, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a multivalent vaccine comprising a recombinant rabies virus vaccine vector that expresses at least one coronavirus glycoprotein immunogenic protein or fragment thereof, wherein said vaccine induces an effective immune response against one or both of said viruses.

In certain embodiments, the coronavirus immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof encoded by the recombinant rabies vaccine vector used in the different aspects of the present disclosure is a MERS-CoV glycoprotein. The MERS-CoV immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof, in various embodiments and aspects herein, can be a polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 8, 12 or 14.

In certain other embodiments, the coronavirus immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof encoded by the recombinant rabies vaccine vector used in the different aspects of the disclosure is a SARS-CoV glycoprotein.

In certain other embodiments, the recombinant rabies virus vector used in the various aspects of the disclosure further expresses one or more additional coronavirus proteins or immunogenic fragments thereof. In various embodiments, the additional coronavirus proteins can be a protein, or an immunogenic fragment thereof, selected from the group consisting of a coronavirus a replicase polyprotein, E protein, N protein, M protein, or a nonstructural protein, for example, from MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV. In various embodiments, the additional coronavirus proteins are selected from the group consisting of any one of the coronavirus proteins, or an immunogenic fragment thereof. In various other embodiments, the additional coronavirus proteins are selected from the group consisting of any one of the MERS-CoV proteins, or immunogenic fragments thereof.

The disclosure further contemplates that the coronavirus glycoprotein expressed by the recombinant rabies virus vaccine vectors used in the various aspects of the disclosure is expressed as immunogenic fragments. An immunogenic fragment of a coronavirus protein is, for the purposes of this disclosure, any segment of a coronavirus protein this is capable of inducing substantially the same immune response as the full-length counterpart protein. Substantially the same immune response can refer to, for example, where the concentration of antibodies induced against the fragment is about the same, or at least about 75%, or 80%, or 90%, or 95%, or 99% or more of the concentration of antibodies induced against the full length coronavirus protein tested under the same conditions. In a particular embodiment, the coronavirus immunogenic glycoprotein fragment includes the S1 domain of the spike protein.

The disclosure further contemplates that any additional coronavirus protein expressed by the recombinant rabies virus vaccine vectors used in the various aspects of the disclosure can be expressed as immunogenic fragments. An immunogenic fragment of a coronavirus protein is, for the purposes of this disclosure, any segment of a coronavirus protein this is capable of inducing substantially the same immune response as the full-length counterpart protein. Substantially the same immune response can refer to, for example, where the concentration of antibodies induced against the fragment is about the same, or at least about 75%, or 80%, or 90%, or 95%, or 99% or more of the concentration of antibodies induced against the full length coronavirus protein tested under the same conditions.

In other embodiments, the recombinant rabies virus vaccine is attenuated, such that its neurovirulence properties have been eliminated or substantially mitigated such that neurological damage typical of the rabies virus is substantially avoided.

In certain embodiments, the recombinant rabies virus vaccine is the live attenuated “SAD B19 RABV” vaccine, which was attenuated by tissue culture passage and has been used as a live oral vaccine for wildlife in Europe for many years.

In certain other embodiments, the recombinant rabies virus vaccine is derived from SAD B19 RABV by introducing additional genetic changes that result in further attenuation of the virus. For the purpose of the disclosure, the term “derived” refers to a modified nucleic acid molecule (e.g., vaccine vector) relative to a wildtype or other source molecule into which the changes are introduced, where the changes include genetic changes and/or chemical changes, including single nucleotide substitutions (point mutations), deletions, insertions, inversions, multiple point mutations, and chemical changes such as DNA methylation or acetylation. In a particular embodiment, the SAD B19 RABV was derived to form “BNSP” by introducing a novel RABV stop-start transcription signal sequence flanked by unique BsiWI and NheI restriction sites between the nucleoprotein (N) and the phosphoprotein (P) genes for introduction of foreign genes (see FIG. 1). In a still further embodiment, the BNSP vector was further derived (and attenuated) by introducing an Arg→Glu change at amino acid 333 of the RABV G protein (see FIG. 1). The 333 mutation has been shown to greatly attenuate neurovirulence of RABV in adult mice.

In certain other embodiments, the disclosure provides host cells that can be transfected with the recombinant rabies virus vaccines of the disclosure for purposes of, including, expressing proteins encoded by the virus vaccines and/or for generating recombinant rabies virions, which can be isolated therefrom and utilized in vaccine compositions in accordance with other aspects and embodiments of the disclosure. Suitable host cells can include any cell susceptible to being transfected or infected in vitro with a rabies virus vaccine, including any human cell lines or animal cell lines.

It is preferred that the rabies vaccine viruses and the production of any virus virions and their use as vaccines be done in accordance with any necessary national and/or international requirements for health and safety with regard to rabies virus and coronavirus, e.g., in accordance with the requirements of the U.S. Center for Disease Control (“CDC”) or the World Health Organization (“WHO”).

The vaccine compositions of the disclosure, in certain embodiments, can include a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient, as further described below.

In yet another embodiment of the disclosure, the disclosure provides recombinant rabies virus vaccine vectors of the Examples, which include: (a) BNSP333-GP (a replication-competent, recombinant rabies virus vector vaccine expressing ZEBOV GP of strain Mayinga); (b) BNSP333-S (a replication-competent, recombinant rabies virus vector vaccine expressing the S protein of MERS-CoV); (c) BNSP333-SΔ29 (a replication-competent, recombinant rabies virus vector vaccine expressing the S protein of MERS-CoV with the 29 c-terminal amino acid truncation); (d) BNSP333-SΔ19 (a replication-competent, recombinant rabies virus vector vaccine expressing the S protein of MERS-CoV with the 29 c-terminal amino acid truncation); (e) BNSP333-S1 (a replication-competent, recombinant rabies virus vector vaccine expressing a chimeric protein comprising the S1 domain of the S glycoprotein of MERS-CoV and the ectodomain domain, transmembrane domain, and cytoplasmic domain of RABV G). Other specific constructs are well within the spirit and scope of the disclosure and these Examples of specific constructs are not meant to limit the disclosure in any manner. It will be appreciated further that, where a replication-defective rabies vaccine vector is used, cell lines which provide the missing/defective functions in trans may be necessary to propagate the viruses and/or to allow preparation of virions. Such in trans functionalities and cell lines are well known in the art and pertain to the use of the rabies vaccine vectors.

The full nucleotide sequences of these four vaccine constructs of the disclosure are as follows: BNSP333-GP; BNSP333-S(SEQ ID NO: 22); BNSP333-SΔ29 (SEQ ID NO: 23); BNSP333-SΔ19 (SEQ ID NO: 24); and BNSP333-S1 (SEQ ID NO: 21), said sequence of which are provided herein.

These and other embodiments are disclosed or are contemplated variations from and encompassed by, the following Detailed Description.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The following detailed description, given by way of example, but not intended to limit the invention solely to the specific embodiments described, may best be understood in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 provides a schematic illustration of some MERS-CoV vaccine constructs described and used herein. Spike protein cDNA was inserted between the N and P genes of the SAD-B19-derived rabies virus (RABV) vaccine vector BNSP333, which contains a mutation in the glycoprotein gene that eliminates neurotropism of the parent SAD-B19 strain (SEQ ID NO: 20). BNSP333-S(SEQ ID NO: 22) contains the wild-type coding sequence of the Spike protein of MERS-CoV (SEQ ID NO: 9), thereby producing a wild-type spike protein (SEQ ID NO: 10). The constructs BNSP333-SΔ29 (SEQ ID NO: 23) and BNSP-SΔ19 (SEQ ID NO: 24) include truncated spike protein nucleic acids (SEQ ID NO: 11 and SEQ ID NO: 13, respectively) that are expressed to produce truncated spike proteins, which lacks the C-terminal 29 or 19 amino acids (SEQ ID NO: 12 and SEQ ID NO: 14), respectively. The BNSP333-S1 construct (SEQ ID NO: 21) expresses a chimeric protein that contains the entire S1 domain fused to the C-terminal part of the RABV G glycoprotein (amino acids 428-524) (SEQ ID NO: 8), which encompasses the entire cytoplasmic domain (CD), the transmembrane domain (TM), plus 31 amino acids of the ectodomain (E31) of RABV G. Different structural elements of the spike protein are indicated in the full length construct: signal peptide (SP), receptor-binding domain (RBD), fusion peptide (FP), heptad repeat regions 1 and 2 (HR1 and HR2), transmembrane domain (TM), and cytoplasmic domain (CD). Numbers indicate amino acid positions in the Spike protein.

FIGS. 2A, 2B, 2C, 2D, and 2E provide expression data of the RABV-G and the S1-G fusion proteins in VERO E6 cells. Cells were infected for 60 hours and, following fixation and permeabilization, stained with monoclonal antibody against RABV G (left panel) and polyclonal antiserum against the S1 subunit of the MERS CoV S protein (right panel).

FIGS. 3A, 3B, and 3C provide data for RABV virions where full-length spike protein has been incorporated. BSR and VERO cells were infected with BNSP333-S and either the parent vector BNSP333 or a RABV vector expressing the wild-type SAD-B19 glycoprotein (SPBN) without the attenuating mutation at position 333 of the glycoprotein. Virus particles were purified from the supernatant and resolved by SDS-PAGE followed by staining with SYPRO-Ruby (A) or western blotting with polyclonal antiserum against the S1 subunit (B) or polyclonal antiserum against the RABV glycoprotein (C). Arrows indicate the RABV nucleoprotein (N), glycoprotein (G), and polymerase protein (L). Incorporation of the RABV glycoprotein is dramatically reduced in the presence of the full-length MERS CoV spike protein.

FIGS. 4A, 4B, and 4C demonstrate the effect of C-terminal truncations of the Spike protein on glycoprotein incorporation into RABV particles. VERO cells were infected with BNSP333 expressing full-length S or truncated S lacking the C-terminal 19 or 29 amino acids. The parent vector BNSP333 expressing no additional glycoprotein was used as control. Purified virus particles were analyzed by SDS-PAGE (A) and western blotting with polyclonal antiserum specific for RABV G (C) and the S1 subunit of MERS CoV S (B). Truncations of S lead to increased incorporation of RABV G into particles compared to virus expressing full-length MERS-CoV S. RABV glycoprotein incorporation is still reduced compared to the parent vector expressing no additional glycoprotein. Arrows indicate the RABV nucleoprotein (N), glycoprotein (G) and polymerase protein (L). Numbers to the left indicate the sizes of the molecular weight standard.

FIGS. 5A, 5B, and 5C demonstrate that the removal of the S2 subunit dramatically improves glycoprotein incorporation into RABV particles. A chimeric glycoprotein containing S1, but lacking the entire S2 subunit was constructed by fusing the first 750 amino acids of S to the C-terminal 96 amino acids of the RABV glycoprotein. VERO cells were infected with BNSP333 expressing the S1-G fusion protein, glycoprotein of Zaire Ebola virus, or parent vector BNSP333 expressing no additional glycoprotein. Purified virus particles were analyzed by SDS-PAGE (A) and western blotting with polyclonal antiserum specific for RABV G (C) and the S1 subunit of MERS CoV S (B). Particles contained nearly equal amount of the S1-G fusion protein and the RABV glycoprotein and showed no reduced G content compared to control virus expressing ZEBOV GP. Arrows indicate the RABV nucleoprotein (N), glycoprotein (G), and polymerase protein (L). Numbers to the left indicate the sizes of the molecular weight standard.

FIGS. 6A, 6B, 6C, and 6D demonstrate that the viruses of the present disclosure produce strong immune responses. Analysis of the immune response to BNSP333-S1/G in mice was examined using Balb/c mice that were immunized three times (day 0, 7, and 21) with 10 μg chemically inactivated particles of BNSP333-S1/G (FIGS. 6A and 6B), or BNSP333 expressing ZEBOV GP (FIlorab1) (FIG. 6A) or mock-immunized with PBS (FIG. 6D). All mice immunized with BNSP333-S1/G developed a strong humoral immune response to the S1 subunit. No response above background was detected in the control mice.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present disclosure may be understood more readily by reference to the following detailed description of preferred embodiments of the disclosure and the Examples included therein. Before the present methods and techniques are disclosed and described, it is to be understood that the present disclosure is not limited to specific methods and compositions, as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the meaning commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs.

The articles “a”, “an”, and “the” as used herein and in the appended claims are used herein to refer to one or to more than one (i.e., to at least one) of the grammatical object of the article unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. By way of example, “an element” means one element or more than one element.

The phrase “and/or,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, should be understood to mean “either or both” of the elements so conjoined, i.e., elements that are conjunctively present in some cases and disjunctively present in other cases. Multiple elements listed with “and/or” should be construed in the same fashion, i.e., “one or more” of the elements so conjoined. Other elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified by the “and/or” clause, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, a reference to “A and/or B”, when used in conjunction with open-ended language such as “comprising” can refer, in one embodiment, to A only (optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to B only (optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to both A and B (optionally including other elements); etc.

As used herein in the specification and in the claims, “or” should be understood to have the same meaning as “and/or” as defined above. For example, when separating items in a list, “or” or “and/or” shall be interpreted as being inclusive, i.e., the inclusion of at least one, but also including more than one, of a number or list of elements, and, optionally, additional unlisted items. Only terms clearly indicated to the contrary, such as “only one of” or “exactly one of,” or, when used in the claims, “consisting of,” will refer to the inclusion of exactly one element of a number or list of elements. In general, the term “or” as used herein shall only be interpreted as indicating exclusive alternatives (i.e., “one or the other but not both”) when preceded by terms of exclusivity, such as “either,” “one of,” “only one of,” or “exactly one of.”

In the claims, as well as in the specification above, all transitional phrases such as “comprising,” “including,” “carrying,” “having,” “containing,” “involving,” “holding,” “composed of,” and the like are to be understood to be open-ended, i.e., to mean including but not limited to. Only the transitional phrases “consisting of’ and “consisting essentially of’ shall be closed or semi-closed transitional phrases, respectively, as set forth in the United States Patent Office Manual of Patent Examining Procedures, Section 2111.03.

As used herein in the specification and in the claims, the phrase “at least one,” in reference to a list of one or more elements, should be understood to mean at least one element selected from anyone or more of the elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including at least one of each and every element specifically listed within the list of elements and not excluding any combinations of elements in the list of elements. This definition also allows that elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified within the list of elements to which the phrase “at least one” refers, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a nonlimiting example, “at least one of A and B” (or, equivalently, “at least one of A or B,” or, equivalently “at least one of A and/or B”) can refer, in one embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, with no B present (and optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, B, with no A present (and optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, and at least one, optionally including more than one, B (and optionally including other elements); etc.

It should also be understood that, in certain methods described herein that include more than one step or act, the order of the steps or acts of the method is not necessarily limited to the order in which the steps or acts of the method are recited unless the context indicates otherwise.

The term “patient” or “subject” is used throughout the specification to describe an animal, including human, nonhuman primates (e.g., ape or monkey) or a wild or domesticated animal, to whom treatment, including prophylactic treatment, with the compositions according to the present disclosure is provided. For treatment of those infections, conditions or disease states which are specific for a specific animal such as a human patient, the term patient refers to that specific animal, including a wild or domesticated animal, such as a camelid (e.g. camels, alpacas, or llamas), a dog, a cat, a mouse, a hamster, or a farm animal such as a horse, cow, sheep, donkey, pig, chicken, etc. In general, in the present disclosure, the term patient refers to a human patient unless otherwise stated or implied from the context of the use of the term.

Furthermore, one of skill in the art will recognize that individual substitutions, deletions or additions in the amino acid sequence, or in the nucleotide sequence encoding for the amino acids, which alter, add or delete a single amino acid or a small percentage of amino acids (typically less than 5%, more typically less than 1%) in an encoded sequence are conservatively modified variations, wherein the alterations result in the substitution of an amino acid with a chemically similar amino acid. Conservative substitution tables providing functionally similar amino acids are well known in the art. The following six groups each contain amino acids that are conservative substitutions for one another: (1) Alanine (A), Serine (S), Threonine (T); (2) Aspartic acid (D), Glutamic acid (E); (3) Asparagine (N), Glutamine (Q); (4) Arginine (R), Lysine (K); (5) Isoleucine (I), Leucine (L), Methionine (M), Valine (V); and (6) Phenylalanine (F), Tyrosine (Y), Tryptophan (W). Other terms are defined or otherwise described herein.

As used herein, the terms “biological sample” or “patient sample” or “test sample” or “sample” as used herein, refer to a sample obtained from an organism or from components (e.g., cells) of a subject or patient for the purpose of diagnosis, prognosis, or evaluation of a subject of interest. The sample can be, for example, blood, which potentially is at risk of containing infection with RABV, or lung tissue, which potentially is at risk of containing infection with MERS-CoV. In certain embodiments, such a sample may be obtained for assessing the presence of antibodies specific for coronavirus or a rabies virus following a suspected infection or following the vaccination using a vaccine construct of the disclosure. The disclosure contemplates the practice of any necessary safety and/or Governmental-imposed procedures for the handling and processing of any sample suspected of containing an infection with a rabies virus or a coronavirus, e.g., MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV.

As used herein, the term “specifically binds to” or is “specific for” in the context of antibody/antigen interactions is intended to mean the specific binding of an antibody to a cognate antigen via specific one or more epitopes recognized by the antibody, without substantially binding to molecules that lack such epitopes.

As used herein, the term “treatment” or “treating” includes any process, action, application, therapy, or the like, wherein a subject (or patient), including a human being, is provided with or administered an agent or composition, e.g., a therapeutic vaccine composition, with the aim of improving the subject's condition, directly or indirectly, or slowing the progression of a condition or disorder in the subject (e.g., fever or shortness of breath due to coronavirus infection), or ameliorating at least one symptom of the disease or disorder under treatment (e.g., cough or diarrhea caused by a coronavirus infection). As used in the context of disease caused by rabies, MERS-CoV or another coronavirus, the terms “treat,” “treatment,” and the like, refer to relief from or alleviation of a pathological process mediated by said viruses.

The terms “co-administration” and “co-administering” or “combination therapy” refer to both concurrent administration (administration of two or more therapeutic agents at the same time) and time varied administration (administration of one or more therapeutic agents at a time different from that of the administration of an additional therapeutic agent or agents), as long as the therapeutic agents are present in the patient to some extent, preferably at effective amounts, at the same time. In certain preferred aspects, one or more of the present compounds described herein, are coadministered in combination with at least one additional bioactive agent, especially including an anticancer agent. In particularly preferred aspects, the co-administration of compounds results in synergistic activity and/or therapy. One therapy can be based on the dual-protective vaccines of the disclosure. A second therapy can be based on a known therapy for the disorder being treated. For example, alternative anti-virus drugs may be co-administered with the vaccine vectors of the disclosure or therapeutic agents to ameliorate symptoms or conditions cause by the infection. The order of administration of two or more sequentially co-administered therapeutic agents is not limited. The administration of the two or more therapeutic agents may also be administered by different routes, e.g., by a local route (e.g., mucosal delivery of a dual vaccine of the disclosure) and a systemic route (e.g., parenteral delivery of an anti-rabies or anti-coronavirus small molecule inhibitor).

The term “effective” is used to describe an amount of a compound, composition or component which, when used within the context of its intended use, effects an intended result. The term effective subsumes all other effective amount or effective concentration terms, which are otherwise described or used in the present application.

As used herein, the phrases “therapeutically effective amount” and “prophylactically effective amount” refer to an amount that provides a therapeutic benefit in the treatment, prevention, or management of pathological processes mediated by an infection with rabies virus, MERS-CoV or another coronavirus, or an overt symptom of pathological processes mediated by rabies or MERS-CoV or another coronavirus. The specific amount that is therapeutically effective can be readily determined by ordinary medical practitioner, and may vary depending on factors known in the art, such as, e.g. the type of pathological processes mediated by virus infection, the patient's history and age, the stage of pathological processes mediated by the virus infection, and the administration of other anti-pathological processes mediated by infection.

As used herein, a “pharmaceutical composition” comprises a pharmacologically effective amount of a vaccine construct and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. As used herein, “pharmacologically effective amount,” “therapeutically effective amount” or simply “effective amount” refers to that amount of a vaccine effective to produce the intended pharmacological, therapeutic or preventive result. For example, if a given clinical treatment is considered effective when there is at least a 25% reduction in a measurable parameter associated with a disease or disorder, a therapeutically effective amount of a drug for the treatment of that disease or disorder is the amount necessary to effect at least a 25% reduction in that parameter. Further, the pharmaceutical composition can be designed to enhance targeting cells involved in the underlying virus infection such as dendritic cells, macrophages, hepatocytes, and other parenchymal cells. As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable” means that the subject item is appropriate for use in a pharmaceutical product.

As used herein, a “vaccine construct” shall refer to a nucleic acid molecule constituting the recombinant rabies virus vector expressing one or more coronavirus antigens (e.g., MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV glycoprotein or a truncation or fragment thereof) of the disclosure. The disclosure also contemplates the use of recombinant vaccine “virions” which are produced by the vaccine constructs of the disclosure when they are introduced into a host cell susceptible to infection therefrom, and which are then allowed to propagate and form whole virus virions in the cell, which are then obtained and/or purified. A “virion” refers to a complete virus particle resulting from an infection cycle of the recombinant rabies genome in a cell capable of hosting the rabies genome. The “vaccine” or “recombinant vaccines” of the disclosure encompass both “genetic vaccines,” i.e., the vaccine constructs of the disclosure, and the traditional vaccines, which are the virions themselves. Depending on the recombinant genome of the vaccine construct, the virions can be replication-competent or replication-deficient. Where they are replication-deficient, their propagation in host cells in vitro or in vivo may require a “helper” virus or cell, in which certain replication functions would be provided in trans by either the helper virus or the cell in which the infection is taking place. Vaccine compositions may also include both vaccine constructs, as well as the virions themselves. The virions also may be of the “killed virus” type, whereby the virion is chemically treated or otherwise deactivated by some means of deactivation such that the virion has no or minimal ability to replication. Killed virus vaccines generally rely on their surface-presented polypeptides (e.g., the coronavirus spike protein or a portion thereof) to induce a humoral-based immune response. Typically, a cellular-based immune response does not occur with the killed-virus type vaccines because these virions do not generally access the interior of cells.

As used herein, the term “isolated” or “purified” polypeptide or protein or virion or biologically-active portion or vaccine construct thereof is substantially free of cellular material or other contaminating proteins from the cell or tissue source from which the polypeptide (e.g., coronavirus glycoprotein protein or truncation/fragment thereof) or virion (e.g., RABV virus expressing a coronavirus glycoprotein protein or a truncation/fragment thereof) is obtained.

As used herein, “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” includes any material which, when combined with an active ingredient of a composition, allows the ingredient to retain biological activity and without causing disruptive reactions with the subject's immune system. Examples include, but are not limited to, any of the standard pharmaceutical carriers such as a phosphate buffered saline solution, water, emulsions such as oil/water emulsion, and various types of wetting agents. Exemplary diluents for aerosol or parenteral administration are phosphate buffered saline or normal (0.9%) saline. Compositions comprising such carriers are formulated by well-known conventional methods (see, for example, Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chapter 43, 14th Ed., Mack Publishing Col, Easton Pa. 18042, USA). Pharmaceutically acceptable excipients have been amply described in a variety of publications, including, for example, A. Gennaro (2000) “Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy,” 20th edition, Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins; Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 14th Ed. or latest edition, Mack Publishing Col, Easton Pa. 18042, USA; Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Drug Delivery Systems (1999) H. C. Ansel et al., eds., 7th ed., Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins; and Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients (2000) A. H. Kibbe et al., eds., 3rd ed. Amer. Pharmaceutical Assoc. Further discussion is provided herein.

The present disclosure relates to novel recombinant vaccine constructs that are based on genetically modifying a rabies virus vaccine vector to express one or more coronavirus immunogenic polypeptides, e.g., a MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV glycoprotein (e.g., spike (S) glycoprotein) or a truncation or fragment thereof, such that humoral and/or cellular immune responses are induced against infection by a rabies virus and/or a coronavirus upon administering a recombinant vaccine construct of the disclosure or a recombinant virion based thereon. In an embodiment, the rabies virus vaccine vector is attenuated to remove or mitigate to a safe level its capacity for neurological damage. The disclosure also provides compositions and methods for immunizing against or treating infections by either or both a rabies virus and a coronavirus, e.g., MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV.

Recombinant vaccine constructs of the disclosure are a single construct capable of simultaneously inducing an immune response against two or more viral pathogens, e.g., rabies virus and MERS-CoV, and may therefore be referred to as “bivalent” or “multivalent”. The vaccine constructs of the disclosure can be used to induce a humoral and/or cellular immune response to protect against a subsequent infection or challenge by a rabies virus and/or a coronavirus (preventative), or used to induce a humoral and/or cellular immune response to aid in neutralizing or clearing a preexisting infection by a rabies virus and/or a coronavirus (therapeutic).

The methods and compositions of the disclosure may induce an immune response that confers dual protection against infections by a rabies virus and/or at least one coronavirus, and/or which can be used therapeutically for an existing infection with rabies virus and/or a coronavirus to treat at least one symptom thereof and/or to neutralize or clear the infecting agents.

The present disclosure provides for a recombinant rabies virus vector comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof of at least one coronavirus. For example, each of the at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof is independently selected from any clinically relevant coronavirus.

The at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof comprises a truncation of a coronavirus glycoprotein, e.g. a c-terminal truncation of a spike glycoprotein. For example, the c-terminal truncation of a spike glycoprotein can result in a portion of the cytoplasmic domain being removed. In a particular embodiment, the c-terminal truncation of a spike protein results in the removal of at least a portion of an S2 domain of the spike protein, e.g. the entire S2 domain. In another embodiment, the c-terminal truncation of a spike glycoprotein comprises an immunogenic portion of an S1 domain of a spike protein, e.g. the entire S1 domain of the spike glycoprotein. In another embodiment, the at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof includes an about 13 to about 25 amino acids or about 23 to about 35 amino acids c-terminal truncation of the spike glycoprotein. For example, the c-terminal truncation of the spike glycoprotein of a coronavirus (e.g., MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV) is a truncation of about 13 to about 35 amino acids, about 13 to about 34 amino acids, about 13 to about 33 amino acids, about 13 to about 32 amino acids, about 13 to about 31 amino acids, about 13 to about 30 amino acids, about 13 to about 29 amino acids, about 13 to about 28 amino acids, about 13 to about 27 amino acids, about 13 to about 26 amino acids, about 13 to about 25 amino acids, about 13 to about 24 amino acids, about 13 to about 23 amino acids, about 13 to about 22 amino acids, about 13 to about 21 amino acids, about 13 to about 20 amino acids, about 13 to about 19 amino acids, about 13 to about 18 amino acids, about 13 to about 17 amino acids, about 13 to about 16 amino acids, about 13 to about 15 amino acids, about 13 to about 14 amino acids, about 14 to about 35 amino acids, about 14 to about 34 amino acids, about 14 to about 33 amino acids, about 14 to about 32 amino acids, about 14 to about 31 amino acids, about 14 to about 30 amino acids, about 14 to about 29 amino acids, about 14 to about 28 amino acids, about 14 to about 27 amino acids, about 14 to about 26 amino acids, about 14 to about 25 amino acids, about 14 to about 24 amino acids, about 14 to about 23 amino acids, about 14 to about 22 amino acids, about 14 to about 21 amino acids, about 14 to about 20 amino acids, about 14 to about 19 amino acids, about 14 to about 18 amino acids, about 14 to about 17 amino acids, about 14 to about 16 amino acids, about 14 to about 15 amino acids, about 15 to about 35 amino acids, about 15 to about 34 amino acids, about 15 to about 33 amino acids, about 15 to about 32 amino acids, about 15 to about 31 amino acids, about 15 to about 30 amino acids, about 15 to about 29 amino acids, about 15 to about 28 amino acids, about 15 to about 27 amino acids, about 15 to about 26 amino acids, about 15 to about 25 amino acids, about 15 to about 24 amino acids, about 15 to about 23 amino acids, about 15 to about 22 amino acids, about 15 to about 21 amino acids, about 15 to about 20 amino acids, about 15 to about 19 amino acids, about 15 to about 18 amino acids, about 15 to about 17 amino acids, about 15 to about 16 amino acids, about 16 to about 35 amino acids, about 16 to about 34 amino acids, about 16 to about 33 amino acids, about 16 to about 32 amino acids, about 16 to about 31 amino acids, about 16 to about 30 amino acids, about 16 to about 29 amino acids, about 16 to about 28 amino acids, about 16 to about 27 amino acids, about 16 to about 26 amino acids, about 16 to about 25 amino acids, about 16 to about 24 amino acids, about 16 to about 23 amino acids, about 16 to about 22 amino acids, about 16 to about 21 amino acids, about 16 to about 20 amino acids, about 16 to about 19 amino acids, about 16 to about 18 amino acids, about 16 to about 17 amino acids, about 17 to about 35 amino acids, about 17 to about 34 amino acids, about 17 to about 33 amino acids, about 17 to about 32 amino acids, about 17 to about 31 amino acids, about 17 to about 30 amino acids, about 17 to about 29 amino acids, about 17 to about 28 amino acids, about 17 to about 27 amino acids, about 17 to about 26 amino acids, about 17 to about 25 amino acids, about 17 to about 24 amino acids, about 17 to about 23 amino acids, about 17 to about 22 amino acids, about 17 to about 21 amino acids, about 17 to about 20 amino acids, about 17 to about 19 amino acids, about 17 to about 18 amino acids, about 18 to about 35 amino acids, about 18 to about 34 amino acids, about 18 to about 33 amino acids, about 18 to about 32 amino acids, about 18 to about 31 amino acids, about 18 to about 30 amino acids, about 18 to about 29 amino acids, about 18 to about 28 amino acids, about 18 to about 27 amino acids, about 18 to about 26 amino acids, about 18 to about 25 amino acids, about 18 to about 24 amino acids, about 18 to about 23 amino acids, about 18 to about 22 amino acids, about 18 to about 21 amino acids, about 18 to about 20 amino acids, about 18 to about 19 amino acids, about 19 to about 35 amino acids, about 19 to about 34 amino acids, about 19 to about 33 amino acids, about 19 to about 32 amino acids, about 19 to about 31 amino acids, about 19 to about 30 amino acids, about 19 to about 29 amino acids, about 19 to about 28 amino acids, about 19 to about 27 amino acids, about 19 to about 26 amino acids, about 19 to about 25 amino acids, about 19 to about 24 amino acids, about 19 to about 23 amino acids, about 19 to about 22 amino acids, about 19 to about 21 amino acids, about 19 to about 20 amino acids, about 20 to about 35 amino acids, about 20 to about 34 amino acids, about 20 to about 33 amino acids, about 20 to about 32 amino acids, about 20 to about 31 amino acids, about 20 to about 30 amino acids, about 20 to about 29 amino acids, about 20 to about 28 amino acids, about 20 to about 27 amino acids, about 20 to about 26 amino acids, about 20 to about 25 amino acids, about 20 to about 24 amino acids, about 20 to about 23 amino acids, about 20 to about 22 amino acids, about 20 to about 21 amino acids, about 21 to about 35 amino acids, about 21 to about 34 amino acids, about 21 to about 33 amino acids, about 21 to about 32 amino acids, about 21 to about 31 amino acids, about 21 to about 30 amino acids, about 21 to about 29 amino acids, about 21 to about 28 amino acids, about 21 to about 27 amino acids, about 21 to about 26 amino acids, about 21 to about 25 amino acids, about 21 to about 24 amino acids, about 21 to about 23 amino acids, about 21 to about 22 amino acids, about 22 to about 35 amino acids, about 22 to about 34 amino acids, about 22 to about 33 amino acids, about 22 to about 32 amino acids, about 22 to about 31 amino acids, about 22 to about 30 amino acids, about 22 to about 29 amino acids, about 22 to about 28 amino acids, about 22 to about 27 amino acids, about 22 to about 26 amino acids, about 22 to about 25 amino acids, about 22 to about 24 amino acids, about 22 to about 23 amino acids, about 23 to about 35 amino acids, about 23 to about 34 amino acids, about 23 to about 33 amino acids, about 23 to about 32 amino acids, about 23 to about 31 amino acids, about 23 to about 30 amino acids, about 23 to about 29 amino acids, about 23 to about 28 amino acids, about 23 to about 27 amino acids, about 23 to about 26 amino acids, about 23 to about 25 amino acids, about 23 to about 24 amino acids, about 24 to about 35 amino acids, about 24 to about 34 amino acids, about 24 to about 33 amino acids, about 24 to about 32 amino acids, about 24 to about 31 amino acids, about 24 to about 30 amino acids, about 24 to about 29 amino acids, about 24 to about 28 amino acids, about 24 to about 27 amino acids, about 24 to about 26 amino acids, about 24 to about 25 amino acids, about 25 to about 35 amino acids, about 25 to about 34 amino acids, about 25 to about 33 amino acids, about 25 to about 32 amino acids, about 25 to about 31 amino acids, about 25 to about 30 amino acids, about 25 to about 29 amino acids, about 25 to about 28 amino acids, about 25 to about 27 amino acids, about 25 to about 26 amino acids, about 26 to about 35 amino acids, about 26 to about 34 amino acids, about 26 to about 33 amino acids, about 26 to about 32 amino acids, about 26 to about 31 amino acids, about 26 to about 30 amino acids, about 26 to about 29 amino acids, about 26 to about 28 amino acids, about 26 to about 27 amino acids, about 27 to about 35 amino acids, about 27 to about 34 amino acids, about 27 to about 33 amino acids, about 27 to about 32 amino acids, about 27 to about 31 amino acids, about 27 to about 30 amino acids, about 27 to about 29 amino acids, about 27 to about 28 amino acids, about 28 to about 35 amino acids, about 28 to about 34 amino acids, about 28 to about 33 amino acids, about 28 to about 32 amino acids, about 28 to about 31 amino acids, about 28 to about 30 amino acids, about 28 to about 29 amino acids, about 29 to about 35 amino acids, about 29 to about 34 amino acids, about 29 to about 33 amino acids, about 29 to about 32 amino acids, about 29 to about 31 amino acids, about 29 to about 30 amino acids, about 30 to about 35 amino acids, about 30 to about 34 amino acids, about 30 to about 33 amino acids, about 30 to about 32 amino acids, about 30 to about 31 amino acids, about 31 to about 35 amino acids, about 31 to about 34 amino acids, about 31 to about 33 amino acids, about 31 to about 32 amino acids, about 32 to about 35 amino acids, about 32 to about 34 amino acids, about 32 to about 33 amino acids, about 33 to about 35 amino acids, or about 33 to about 34 amino acids.

For example, the c-terminal truncation of the spike glycoprotein of a coronavirus (e.g., MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV) is a truncation of about 10 amino acids, about 11 amino acids, about 12 amino acids, about 13 amino acids, about 14 amino acids, about 15 amino acids, about 16 amino acids, about 17 amino acids, about 18 amino acids, about 19 amino acids, about 20 amino acids, about 21 amino acids, about 22 amino acids, about 23 amino acids, about 24 amino acids, about 25 amino acids, about 26 amino acids about 27 amino acids, about 28 amino acids, about 29 amino acids, about 30 amino acids, about 31 amino acids, about 32 amino acids, about 33 amino acids, about 34 amino acids, or about 35 amino acids.

In an additional embodiment, the at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof is a chimeric/fusion protein comprising at least a portion of a coronavirus glycoprotein, which is immunogenic, and a membrane anchor. In certain embodiments, the at least a portion of the coronavirus glycoprotein includes at least a portion of a spike glycoprotein. In yet another embodiment, the at least a portion of the coronavirus glycoprotein includes at least a portion of an S1 domain of a spike glycoprotein, e.g., the entire S1 domain of a spike glycoprotein. For example, the at least a portion of the coronavirus glycoprotein can include amino acids 1 to 750 or amino acids 22 to 750 of the MERS-CoV spike glycoprotein.

In certain embodiments, the membrane anchor includes at least one transmembrane domain. In some embodiments, the membrane anchor is selected from a virus other than a coronavirus, e.g., a virus from the Rhabdoviridae family such as RABV. In a particular embodiment, the membrane anchor is derived from a glycoprotein from the Rhabdoviridae family (e.g., RABV), e.g. the membrane anchor can include a portion of at least one of: an ectodomain, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic domain of a Rhabdoviridae glycoprotein. For example, the membrane anchor can comprise a portion of a Rhabdoviridae G glycoprotein comprising the cytoplasmic domain, the transmembrane domain, and a portion of the ectodomain. For example, in an embodiment, the chimeric/fusion protein includes about 15 to about 55 amino acids of the ectodomain of a Rhabdoviridae G glycoprotein (e.g., about 15 amino acids, about 16 amino acids, about 17 amino acids, about 18 amino acids, about 20 amino acids, about 21 amino acids, about 22 amino acids, about 23 amino acids, about 24 amino acids, about 25 amino acids, about 26 amino acids, about 27 amino acids, about 28 amino acids, about 29 amino acids, about 30 amino acids, about 31 amino acids, about 32 amino acids, about 33 amino acids, about 34 amino acids, about 35 amino acids, about 36 amino acids, about 37 amino acids, about 38 amino acids, about 39 amino acids, about 40 amino acids, about 41 amino acids, about 42 amino acids, about 43 amino acids, about 44 amino acids, about 45 amino acids, about 46 amino acids, about 47 amino acids, about 48 amino acids, about 49 amino acids, about 50 amino acids, about 51 amino acids, about 52 amino acids, about 53 amino acids, about 54 amino acids, or about 55 amino acids of the ectodomain, which can include at least a portion of the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 16).

In another embodiment, the membrane anchor protein includes about 96 amino acids from the c-terminus of a Rhabdoviridae G glycoprotein, for example, amino acids 428-524 of RABV G glycoprotein (SEQ ID NO: 16). In certain embodiments, the membrane anchor protein is about 90 to about 150 amino acids from the c-terminus of a Rhabdoviridae G glycoprotein, such as RABV. For example, the membrane anchor protein can be about 90 amino acids, about 91 amino acids, about 92 amino acids, about 93 amino acids, about 94 amino acids, about 95 amino acids, about 96 amino acids, about 97 amino acids, about 98 amino acids, about 99 amino acids, about 100 amino acids, about 101 amino acids, about 102 amino acids, about 103 amino acids, about 104 amino acids, about 105 amino acids, about 106 amino acids, about 107 amino acids, about 108 amino acids, about 108 amino acids, about 110 amino acids, about 111 amino acids, about 112 amino acids, about 113 amino acids, about 114 amino acids, about 115 amino acids, about 116 amino acids, about 117 amino acids, about 118 amino acids, about 119 amino acids, about 120 amino acids, about 121 amino acids, about 122 amino acids, about 123 amino acids, about 124 amino acids, about 125 amino acids, about 126 amino acids, about 127 amino acids, about 128 amino acids, about 129 amino acids, about 130 amino acids, about 131 amino acids, about 132 amino acids, about 133 amino acids, about 134 amino acids, about 135 amino acids, about 136 amino acids, about 137 amino acids, about 138 amino acids, about 139 amino acids, about 140 amino acids, about 141 amino acids, about 142 amino acids, about 143 amino acids, about 144 amino acids, about 145 amino acids, about 146 amino acids, about 147 amino acids, about 148 amino acids, about 149 amino acids, or about 150 amino acids from the c-terminus of a Rhabdoviridae G glycoprotein, such as RABV).

In a particular aspect, the present disclosure provides a recombinant rabies virus vector comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof of at least one coronavirus and/or a chimeric protein comprising at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof of at least one coronavirus.

In yet another aspect, the present disclosure provides a multivalent vaccine that is effective to protect against infection with one or both a rabies virus and a coronavirus, comprising a recombinant rabies virus vector that expresses at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof of at least one coronavirus.

In still another aspect, the present disclosure provides a vaccine composition that comprises at least one multivalent vaccine that is effective to protect against infection with one or both a rabies virus and a coronavirus, comprising a recombinant rabies virus vector that expresses at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof of at least one coronavirus. In an embodiment, the vaccine composition further comprises a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

In another aspect still, the present disclosure provides a method of inducing an immune response protective against an infection by one or both of a coronavirus and a rabies virus in a subject, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a multivalent vaccine comprising a recombinant rabies virus vaccine vector that expresses at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof of at least one coronavirus.

In a further aspect, the disclosure provides a method of inducing neutralizing antibodies against a coronavirus and/or a rabies virus in a subject infected with or having been exposed to either or both of said viruses, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a multivalent vaccine comprising a recombinant rabies virus vaccine vector that expresses at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment derived from at least one coronavirus glycoprotein.

In yet a further aspect, the disclosure involves a method of treating a subject infected with a coronavirus and/or a rabies virus, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a multivalent vaccine comprising a recombinant rabies virus vaccine vector that expresses at least one coronavirus immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof, wherein said vaccine induces an effective immune response against one or both of said viruses.

In certain embodiments, the coronavirus immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof encoded by the recombinant rabies vaccine vector used in the different aspects of the present disclosure is a MERS-CoV glycoprotein. The MERS-CoV immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof, in various embodiments and aspects herein, can be a polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 8, 12, or 14.

In certain other embodiments, the coronavirus immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof encoded by the recombinant rabies vaccine vector used in the different aspects of the disclosure is a SARS-CoV glycoprotein.

In certain other embodiments, the recombinant rabies virus vector used in the various aspects of the disclosure further expresses one or more additional coronavirus proteins or immunogenic fragments thereof. In various embodiments, the additional coronavirus proteins can be a protein (or an immunogenic fragment thereof) selected from the group consisting of a coronavirus a replicase polyprotein, E protein, N protein, M protein, or a nonstructural protein, for example, from MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV. In various embodiments, the additional coronavirus proteins are selected from the group consisting of any one of the coronavirus proteins, or an immunogenic fragment thereof. In various other embodiments, the additional coronavirus proteins are selected from the group consisting of any one of the MERS-CoV proteins, or immunogenic fragments thereof.

The disclosure further contemplates that the coronavirus glycoprotein expressed by the recombinant rabies virus vaccine vectors used in the various aspects of the disclosure is expressed as immunogenic fragments. An immunogenic fragment of a coronavirus protein is, for the purposes of this disclosure, any segment of a coronavirus protein this is capable of inducing substantially the same immune response as the full-length counterpart protein. Substantially the same immune response can refer to, for example, where the concentration of antibodies induced against the fragment is about the same, or at least about 75%, or 80%, or 90%, or 95%, or 99% or more of the concentration of antibodies induced against the full length coronavirus protein tested under the same conditions. In a particular embodiment, the coronavirus immunogenic glycoprotein fragment includes the S1 domain of the spike protein.

The disclosure further contemplates that any additional coronavirus protein expressed by the recombinant rabies virus vaccine vectors used in the various aspects of the disclosure can be expressed as immunogenic fragments. An immunogenic fragment of a coronavirus protein is, for the purposes of this disclosure, any segment of a coronavirus protein this is capable of inducing substantially the same immune response as the full-length counterpart protein. Substantially the same immune response can refer to, for example, where the concentration of antibodies induced against the fragment is about the same, or at least about 75%, or 80%, or 90%, or 95%, or 99% or more the concentration of antibodies induced against the full length coronavirus protein tested under the same conditions.

In other embodiments, the recombinant rabies virus vaccine is attenuated, such that its neurovirulence properties have been eliminated or substantially mitigated such that neurological damage typical of the rabies virus is substantially avoided.

In certain embodiments, the recombinant rabies virus vaccine is the live attenuated “SAD B19 RABV” vaccine, which was attenuated by tissue culture passage and has been used as a live oral vaccine for wildlife in Europe for many years.

In certain other embodiments, the recombinant rabies virus vaccine is derived from SAD B19 RABV by introducing additional genetic changes that result in further attenuation of the virus. For the purpose of the disclosure, the term “derived” refers to a modified nucleic acid molecule (e.g., vaccine vector) relative to a wildtype or other source molecule into which the changes are introduced, where the changes include genetic changes and/or chemical changes, including single nucleotide substitutions (point mutations), deletions, insertions, inversions, multiple point mutations, and chemical changes such as DNA methylation or acetylation. In a particular embodiment, the SAD B19 RABV was derived to form “BNSP” by introducing a novel RABV stop-start transcription signal sequence flanked by unique BsiWI and NheI restriction sites between the nucleoprotein (N) and the phosphoprotein (P) genes for introduction of foreign genes (see FIG. 1). In a still further embodiment, the BNSP vector was further derived (and attenuated) by introducing an Arg→Glu change at amino acid 333 of the RABV G protein (see FIG. 1). The 333 mutation has been shown to greatly attenuate neurovirulence of RABV in adult mice.

In certain other embodiments, the disclosure provides host cells that can be transfected with the recombinant rabies virus vaccines of the disclosure for purposes of, including, expressing proteins encoded by the virus vaccines and/or for generating recombinant rabies virions, which can be isolated therefrom and utilized in vaccine compositions in accordance with other aspects and embodiments of the disclosure. Suitable host cells can include any cell susceptible to being transfected or infected in vitro with a rabies virus vaccine, including any human cell lines or animal cell lines. Such cell lines and their use in expressing proteins and forming rabies virions is well known in the art and described in more detail in, for example, Barrett P N et al., Expert Rev Vaccines. 2009 May; 8(5):607-18; Tordo N et al., Dev Biol (Basel). 2008; 131:467-76; Toovey S. et al., Travel Med Infect Dis. 2007 November; 5(6):327-48; Chelbi-Alix M K, J Interferon Cytokine Res. 2006 May; 26(5):271-80; Morenweiser R. et al., Gene Ther. 2005 October; 12 Suppl 1:S103-10; Morimoto K et al., Virus Res. 2005 July; 111(1):61-7. Epub 2005 Apr. 11; Finke S et al., Virus Res. 2005 August; 111(2):120-31; and Halder M., Altern Lab Anim. 2002 January-February; 30(1):93-108; and Montagnon B J et al., Dev Biol Stand. 1998; 93:119-23, each of which are incorporated herein by reference.

It is preferred that the rabies vaccine viruses and the production of any virus virions and their use as vaccines be done in accordance with any necessary national and/or international requirements for health and safety with regard to rabies virus and coronavirus, e.g., in accordance with the requirements of the U.S. Center for Disease Control (“CDC”) or the World Health Organization (“WHO”).

The vaccine compositions of the disclosure, in certain embodiments, can include a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient, as further described below.

In yet another embodiment of the disclosure, the inventors have specifically constructed the five recombinant rabies virus vaccine vectors of the Examples, which include: (a) BNSP333-GP (a replication-competent, recombinant rabies virus vector vaccine expressing ZEBOV GP of strain Mayinga); (b) BNSP333-S (a replication-competent, recombinant rabies virus vector vaccine expressing the S protein of MERS-CoV); (c) BNSP333-SΔ29 (a replication-competent, recombinant rabies virus vector vaccine expressing the S protein of MERS-CoV with the 29 c-terminal amino acid truncation); (d) BNSP333-SΔ19 (a replication-competent, recombinant rabies virus vector vaccine expressing the S protein of MERS-CoV with the 29 c-terminal amino acid truncation); (e) BNSP333-S1 (a replication-competent, recombinant rabies virus vector vaccine expressing a chimeric protein comprising the S1 domain of the S glycoprotein of MERS-CoV and the ectodomain domain, transmembrane domain, and cytoplasmic domain of RABV G). Other specific constructs are well within the spirt and scope of the disclosure and these Examples of specific constructs are not meant to limit the disclosure in any manner. It will be appreciated further that, where a replication-defective rabies vaccine vector is used, cell lines which provide the missing/defective functions in trans may be necessary to propagate the viruses and/or to allow preparation of virions. Such in trans functionalities and cell lines are well known in the art and pertain to the use of the rabies vaccine vectors.

The present disclosure contemplates that any suitable rabies virus genome or vector can be used to construct the recombinant vaccines of the disclosure. Thus, the rabies virus genome can be obtained from any suitable strain or isolate of rabies virus, so long as it is or is made to be attenuated. For the purposes of this disclosure, the term “attenuated,” as it pertains to a property of a rabies virus genome of the disclosure, shall mean that the rabies virus genome or vector is capable of viral attachment, entry, and in some cases, replication in a host cell. However, attenuated rabies virus genomes—as compared to non-attenuated rabies viruses or rabies virus genomes—have substantially or completely lost the property of neurovirulence. In other words, the neurotropic character of the attenuated RVs of the disclosure preferably have been abolished or substantially abolished such that the RV vectors of the disclosure are safe for administering to a subject or animal without a substantial concern for neurovirulence effects.

The basic biology of the rabies virus is well-known. Rabies virus is a non-segmented negative-strand RNA virus of the Rhabdoviridae family, and which is the causative agent of rabies. Rabies is a disease that can occur in all warm-blooded species. Infection with rabies virus followed by the outbreak of the clinical features in nearly all instances results in death of the infected species. In Europe, the USA and Canada wild life rabies still exists and is an important factor in the cause of most human rabies cases that occur. On the other hand, urban rabies constitutes the major cause of human rabies in developing countries and entire continents, such as Africa.

Rabies virus (RV) virions are composed of two major structural components: a nucleocapsid or ribonucleoprotein (RNP), and an envelope in the form of a bilayer membrane surrounding the RNP core. The infectious component of all Rhabdoviruses is the RNP core which consists of the RNA genome encapsidated by the nucleocapsid (N) protein in combination with two minor proteins, i.e. RNA-dependent RNA-polymerase (L) and phosphoprotein (P). The membrane surrounding the RNP core consists of two proteins: a trans-membrane glycoprotein (G) and a matrix (M) protein located at the inner site of the membrane.

The G protein, also referred to as spike protein, is responsible for cell attachment and membrane fusion in RV and additionally is the main target for the host immune system. The amino acid region at position 330 to 340 (referred to as antigenic site III) of the G protein has been identified to be responsible for the virulence of the virus, in particular the Arg residue at position 333. All RV strains have this virulence determining antigenic site III in common.

Although wild type rabies virus almost always causes a fatal central nervous system (CNS) disease in mammalian species, attenuated form(s) of rabies virus typically do not cause such problems.

Suitable attenuated rabies virus genome or vectors can be found described elsewhere, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,544,791; 7,419,816; 6,887,479; 6,719,981; and 6,706,523, each of which are incorporated herein by reference.

In a preferred embodiment, the attenuated rabies virus genome of the disclosure is based on the replication-competent rabies virus strain SAD B19, which is a RV strain that has been used for oral immunization of wild-life animals in Europe for more than 20 years and which has a good safety record. The nucleotide sequence for SAD B19 is publicly available as Genbank accession No. M31046.1 (SEQ ID NO: 20).

The disclosure also relates to the coronavirus polypeptide of interest—and to their associated nucleotide and amino acid sequences—the genes of which are to be incorporated into the attenuated recombinant rabies vectors of the disclosure. The invention contemplates using any coronavirus protein, including any virion surface glycoprotein, nucleoprotein, structural protein or element of replication machinery, or an immunogenic fragment thereof, which is to be incorporated using standard and well-known techniques in molecular biology into the attenuated rabies virus genomes of the disclosure. In preferred embodiments, the coronavirus proteins are those identified from coronavirus, including any of a replicase polyprotein, an envelope protein, a nucleocapsid protein, a membrane protein, a spike protein, and a nonstructural protein.

The corresponding nucleotide and amino acid sequences for these coronaviruses proteins, as well as, corresponding structural and non-structural proteins of coronaviruses, are readily available in the art and can be easily utilized by the present disclosure. Accordingly, the following Table 1 provides pertinent information regarding a non-exhaustive listing of publicly available sequences contemplated by the present disclosure, in particular with respect to coronavirus spike glycoprotein:

TABLE 1 Sequence information of publicly available Coronavirus Spike Protein amino acid sequences Coronavirus Coronavirus Genbank No. AA Protein Genus Nucleotide Sequence(s) SEQ ID NO: Spike (S) MERS-CoV NC_019843.3 SEQ ID NO: 3 Spike (S) MERS-CoV AHV00721.1 SEQ ID NO: 4 Spike (S) SARS-CoV AAR86775.1 SEQ ID NO: 5 Spike (S) SARS-CoV AAR86775.1 SEQ ID NO: 7

The disclosure further contemplates that the rabies vaccine of the disclosure can be engineered—using well-known techniques—to express not only a coronavirus glycoprotein or an immunogenic fragment thereof, but also to express one or more additional coronavirus proteins or immunogenic fragments thereof (e.g., additional MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV proteins). In this manner, use of a bivalent or multivalent attenuated rabies virus vector is possible in accordance with the disclosure.

It is understood in the art that certain changes to the nucleotide sequence employed in a genetic construct have little or no bearing on the proteins encoded by the construct. Such changes result either from silent point mutations or point mutations that encode different amino acids that do not appreciably alter the behavior of the encoded protein. It is also understood that portions of the coding region can be eliminated without affecting the ability of the construct to achieve the desired effect, namely induction of a protective immune response against a coronavirus challenge. It is further understood in the art that certain advantageous steps can be taken to increase the antigenicity of an encoded protein by modifying its amino acid composition. Such changes in amino acid composition can be introduced by modifying the genetic sequence encoding the protein. It is contemplated that all such modifications and variations of the coronavirus glycoprotein genes are equivalents within the scope of the present disclosure.

Any suitable means, including any appropriate genetic-based or molecular biology-based techniques and the like can be used to construct the recombinant rabies vaccine vectors of the present disclosure.

In one embodiment, the skilled artisan may first obtain a rabies virus vector suitable for purposes of the disclosure. Preferably, the rabies virus vectors that are suitable are those that are attenuated, such there are no harmful effects by the rabies virus vector on the central nervous system when administered to a subject. Suitable rabies virus vectors can be readily obtained. Such vectors can be modified to enhance the degree of attenuation by known methods. In a preferred embodiment, the present inventors utilized BNSP RABV vaccine vector (FIG. 1), which was derived from SAD B19 vaccine strain, which was attenuated by tissue culture passage and has been previously used as a live oral vaccine for wildlife in Europe.

This particular construct, as discussed in Example 1 herein, was engineered to contain a novel RABV stop-start transcription signal sequence flanked by unique BsiWI and NheI restriction sites between the nucleoprotein (N) and phosphoprotein (P) genes of the rabies virus genome for the introduction of foreign genes. Moreover, to completely remove neurovirulence observed for this construct, a further attenuated derivate (“BNSP333”) was generated which contains an Arg→Glu change at amino acid 333 of RABV G, which has been shown to greatly attenuate neurovirulence of RABV vaccine vectors in adult mice.

As discussed in more detail in the Examples, the inventors constructed five different recombinant rabies virus vaccines based on the BNSP333 attenuated rabies virus vaccine, which included: (a) BNSP333-GP (a replication-competent, recombinant rabies virus vector vaccine expressing ZEBOV GP of strain Mayinga); (b) BNSP333-S (a replication-competent, recombinant rabies virus vector vaccine expressing the S protein of MERS-CoV); (c) BNSP333-SΔ29 (a replication-competent, recombinant rabies virus vector vaccine expressing the S protein of MERS-CoV with the 29 c-terminal amino acid truncation); (d) BNSP333-SΔ19 (a replication-competent, recombinant rabies virus vector vaccine expressing the S protein of MERS-CoV with the 29 c-terminal amino acid truncation); (e) BNSP333-S1 (a replication-competent, recombinant rabies virus vector vaccine expressing a chimeric protein comprising the S1 domain of the S glycoprotein of MERS-CoV and the ectodomain domain, transmembrane domain, and cytoplasmic domain of RABV G)

In constructing the rabies virus vector constructs of the disclosure, a desired coronavirus immunogenic polypeptide (e.g., MERS-CoV or SARS Co-V spike glycoprotein) can be selected and obtained based on publicly available sequences and with the use of well-known molecular biology techniques. For example, one interested in using the rabies virus vaccine to introduce MERS-CoV spike protein, or a portion thereof, into a subject may obtain the nucleotide sequence of the spike glycoprotein gene from coronavirus by using readily available public information (e.g., the data site operated by the National Center for Biotechnology Information). A PCR-based strategy could be used to amplify the spike gene from a suitable source of template DNA, also readily obtainable by those of ordinary skill in the art, using oligonucleotide primers designed from the gene sequence itself. Once amplified, standard methods for cloning, sequence verification, expression, and transfer of the nucleotide sequence to the BSNP333 rabies vector (or any other suitable rabies vector of the disclosure) could be performed to obtain the desired recombinant rabies virus vector expressing a MERS-CoV spike glycoprotein. It will be readily apparent, however, that any work performed using sequences or materials from MERS-CoV or any other coronavirus may need to be performed in the appropriate Biosafety Level given the obvious dangers in working and handling coronaviruses.

The disclosure further contemplates introducing more than a single coronavirus polypeptide immunogen into the same recombinant rabies virus vector. For example, one could, using similar procedures offered above, as well as any other suitable procedures, prepare two or more nucleotide sequences that encode different coronavirus polypeptide immunogens of interest, e.g., where one polypeptide of interest is the MERS-CoV glycoprotein or a fragment thereof and a second polypeptide of interest or a fragment thereof is a coronavirus (e.g., MERS-CoV) replicase polyprotein, envelope protein, nucleocapsid protein, membrane protein, spike protein, and nonstructural protein. Thus, the present disclosure contemplates administering a rabies virus vector that contains and expresses both a single coronavirus (e.g., MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV) glycoprotein and another coronavirus (e.g., MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV) polypeptide fragment immunogen.

Moreover, two or more different rabies virus vaccine constructs can be combined into single administration or via co-administration, wherein each of the rabies virus vaccines is engineered to express a different coronavirus immunogen polypeptide fragment.

It is further contemplated that, where cross-reactivity occurs, i.e., where antibodies or a cytotoxic T-cell response induced in response to one MERS-CoV or coronavirus polypeptide can be cross-reactive with the corresponding polypeptide from a different type of MERS-CoV or even a different genus of coronavirus, the disclosure envisions a single vaccine that expresses a single coronavirus polypeptide or fragment thereof (e.g., a MERS-CoV spike glycoprotein fragment) that induces an immune response that is cross-reactive against other types of MERS-CoV or even other coronaviruses (e.g., SARS-CoV). The disclosure also contemplates vaccine compositions that comprise individual recombinant rabies vaccine vectors which express specific immunogenic spike proteins or fragments thereof of different coronaviruses so that a single vaccine composition effective against a variety of coronaviruses (e.g., MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV) can be administered.

These and other methods for obtaining and/or preparing the rabies virus vaccine constructs can be found in, for example, Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Ausubel et al. (eds.), John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

The disclosure further contemplates that host cells transfected by the recombinant rabies virus vectors of the disclosure can be used to express virus-encoded protein and/or to form recombinant rabies virions. Methods and techniques for maintaining continuous cell cultures for infection by rabies viruses are well known in the art. A cell line can be infected (or transfected) with a recombinant rabies vaccine vector of the disclosure. The cell lines may be used to express the viral proteins, or they can be used to produce whole rabies virions containing the expressed MERS-CoV or otherwise desired coronavirus polypeptide or fragments thereof expressed from the recombinant rabies vaccine vector used to infect the cells. Suitable host cells can include any cell susceptible to being transfected or infected in vitro with a rabies virus vaccine, including any human cell lines or animal cell lines. Such cell lines and their use in expressing proteins and forming rabies virions are well known in the art and described in more detail in, for example, Barrett P N et al., Expert Rev Vaccines. 2009 May; 8(5):607-18; Tordo N et al., Dev Biol (Basel). 2008; 131:467-76; Toovey S. et al., Travel Med Infect Dis. 2007 November; 5(6):327-48; Chelbi-Alix M K, J Interferon Cytokine Res. 2006 May; 26(5):271-80; Morenweiser R. et al., Gene Ther. 2005 October; 12 Suppl 1:S103-10; Morimoto K et al., Virus Res. 2005 July; 111(1):61-7. Epub 2005 Apr. 11; Finke S et al., Virus Res. 2005 August; 111(2):120-31; and Halder M., Altern Lab Anim. 2002 January-February; 30(1):93-108; Montagnon B J et al., Dev Biol Stand. 1998; 93:119-23, each of which is incorporated herein by reference.

It is preferred that the rabies vaccine viruses and the production of any virus virions and their use as vaccines be done in accordance with any necessary national and/or international requirements for health and safety with regard to rabies virus and coronaviruses, e.g., in accordance with the requirements of the U.S. Center for Disease Control (“CDC”) or the World Health Organization (“WHO”).

In another aspect of the disclosure, the recombinant rabies virus vector vaccines of the disclosure, or recombinant rabies virion vaccines (which express the desired coronavirus polypeptide(s) fragment therein or thereon) may be formulated as compositions in accordance with known methods for preparing medicinal formulations and pharmaceutical compositions. The type and components of the pharmaceutical compositions of the disclosure can depend on the mode of administration, e.g., oral, parenteral or skin.

Pharmaceutical compositions and formulations for oral administration can include powders or granules, microparticulates, nanoparticulates, suspensions or solutions in water or non-aqueous media, capsules, gel capsules, sachets, tablets or minitablets. Thickeners, flavoring agents, diluents, emulsifiers, dispersing aids or binders may be desirable.

Pharmaceutical compositions and formulations for parenteral, intrathecal or intraventricular administration may include sterile aqueous solutions which may also contain buffers, diluents and other suitable additives such as, but not limited to, penetration enhancers, carrier compounds and other pharmaceutically acceptable carriers or excipients.

Pharmaceutical compositions of the present disclosure can also include, but are not limited to, solutions, emulsions, and liposome-containing formulations. These compositions may be generated from a variety of components that include, but are not limited to, preformed liquids, self-emulsifying solids and self-emulsifying semisolids.

The pharmaceutical formulations of the present disclosure, which may conveniently be presented in unit dosage form, may be prepared according to conventional techniques well known in the pharmaceutical industry. In general, the formulations are prepared by uniformly and intimately bringing into association the active ingredients with liquid carriers or finely divided solid carriers or both, and then, if necessary, shaping the product.

In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions of the present disclosure can incorporate carrier compounds in the formulation. As used herein, “carrier compound” or “carrier” can refer to a nucleic acid, or analog thereof, which is inert (i.e., does not possess biological activity per se) but is recognized as a nucleic acid by in vivo processes that reduce the bioavailability of a nucleic acid having biological activity by, for example, degrading the biologically active nucleic acid or promoting its removal from circulation. The coadministration of a nucleic acid, such as a rabies vaccine vector of the disclosure, and a carrier compound, typically with an excess of the latter substance, can result in a substantial reduction of the amount of nucleic acid recovered in the liver, kidney or other extracirculatory reservoirs, presumably due to competition between the carrier compound and the nucleic acid for a common receptor. For example, the recovery of a partially phosphorothioate dsRNA in hepatic tissue can be reduced when it is coadministered with polyinosinic acid, dextran sulfate, polycytidic acid or 4-acetamido-4′isothiocyano-stilbene-2,2′-disulfonic acid (Miyao et al., DsRNA Res. Dev., 1995, 5, 115-121; Takakura et al., DsRNA & Nucl. Acid Drug Dev., 1996, 6, 177-183.

The pharmaceutical compositions of the disclosure may also include a “pharmaceutical carrier” or “excipient”, which for purposes of the disclosure, is a pharmaceutically acceptable solvent, suspending agent or any other pharmacologically inert vehicle for delivering one or more nucleic acids (e.g., a recombinant rabies virus vector of the disclosure) or polypeptide or virus virion (e.g., a recombinant rabies virion expressing the one or more coronavirus glycoproteins (including fragments thereof) of the disclosure) to an animal. The excipient may be liquid or solid and is selected, with the planned manner of administration in mind, so as to provide for the desired bulk, consistency, etc., when combined with an active agent of the disclosure (e.g., rabies vaccine vector, virion, or expressed polypeptides) the other components of a given pharmaceutical composition. Typical pharmaceutical carriers include, but are not limited to, binding agents (e.g., pregelatinized maize starch, polyvinylpyrrolidone or hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, etc.); fillers (e.g., lactose and other sugars, microcrystalline cellulose, pectin, gelatin, calcium sulfate, ethyl cellulose, polyacrylates or calcium hydrogen phosphate, etc.); lubricants (e.g., magnesium stearate, talc, silica, colloidal silicon dioxide, stearic acid, metallic stearates, hydrogenated vegetable oils, corn starch, polyethylene glycols, sodium benzoate, sodium acetate, etc.); disintegrants (e.g., starch, sodium starch glycolate, etc.); and wetting agents (e.g., sodium lauryl sulphate, etc).

Pharmaceutically acceptable organic or inorganic excipients suitable for non-parenteral administration which do not deleteriously react with the active agents of the disclosure (e.g., rabies vaccine vector, virion, or expressed polypeptides) can also be used to formulate the compositions of the present disclosure. Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include, but are not limited to, water, salt solutions, alcohols, polyethylene glycols, gelatin, lactose, amylose, magnesium stearate, talc, silicic acid, viscous paraffin, hydroxymethylcellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone and the like.

The pharmaceutical compositions of the present disclosure may additionally contain other adjunct components conventionally found in pharmaceutical compositions, at their art-established usage levels. Thus, for example, the compositions may contain additional, compatible, pharmaceutically-active materials such as, for example, antipruritics, astringents, local anesthetics or anti-inflammatory agents, or may contain additional materials useful in physically formulating various dosage forms of the compositions of the present disclosure, such as dyes, flavoring agents, preservatives, antioxidants, opacifiers, thickening agents and stabilizers. However, such materials, when added, should not unduly interfere with the biological activities of the components of the compositions of the present disclosure. The formulations can be sterilized and, if desired, mixed with auxiliary agents, e.g., lubricants, preservatives, stabilizers, wetting agents, emulsifiers, salts for influencing osmotic pressure, buffers, colorings, flavorings and/or aromatic substances and the like which do not deleteriously interact with the nucleic acid(s) of the formulation.

Aqueous suspensions may contain substances which increase the viscosity of the suspension including, for example, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, sorbitol and/or dextran. The suspension may also contain stabilizers.

Certain embodiments of the disclosure provide pharmaceutical compositions containing one or more other additional therapeutic agents, for example, anti-viral small molecule drug that inhibits some aspect of MERS-CoV entry and/or replication and/or assembly, or which helps to mitigate one or more symptoms of a MERS-CoV infection, or an infection by another coronavirus, such as SARS-CoV. Examples of such therapeutic agents include, but are not limited to, aspirin, codeine, benzonatate, chlorpheniramine, pseudoephedrine, hydrocodone, colistimethate, guafenesin, homatropine, levodropropizine, noscapine, oxymetazoline, triprolidine, daunorubicin, daunomycin, dactinomycin, doxorubicin, epirubicin, idarubicin, esorubicin, bleomycin, mafosfamide, ifosfamide, cytosine arabinoside, bis-chloroethylnitrosurea, busulfan, mitomycin C, actinomycin D, mithramycin, prednisone, hydroxyprogesterone, testosterone, tamoxifen, dacarbazine, procarbazine, hexamethylmelamine, pentamethylmelamine, mitoxantrone, amsacrine, chlorambucil, methylcyclohexylnitrosurea, nitrogen mustards, melphalan, cyclophosphamide, 6-mercaptopurine, 6-thioguanine, cytarabine, 5-azacytidine, hydroxyurea, deoxycoformycin, 4-hydroxyperoxycyclophosphoramide, 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), 5-fluorodeoxyuridine (5-FUdR), methotrexate (MTX), colchicine, taxol, vincristine, vinblastine, etoposide (VP-16), trimetrexate, irinotecan, topotecan, gemcitabine, teniposide, cisplatin and diethylstilbestrol (DES). See, generally, The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, 15th Ed. 1987, pp. 1206-1228, Berkow et al., eds., Rahway, N.J. When used with the compounds of the disclosure, such therapeutic agents may be used individually, sequentially, or in combination with one or more other such therapeutic agents. Anti-inflammatory drugs, including but not limited to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g., naproxen dodium, celecoxib, sulindac, oxaprozin, salsalate, diflunisal, piroxicam, indomethacin, etodolac, meloxicam, naproxen, nabumetone, ketorolac tromethamine, naproxen/esomeprazole, diclofenac, ibuprofine, and/or aspirin) and corticosteroids (e.g., bethamethasone, prednisone, prednisolone, triamcinolone, methylprednisolone, dexamethasone, hydrocortisone, cortisone, ethamethasoneb, and/or fludrocortisone), and antiviral drugs (including but not limited to amantadine, rimantadine, oseltamivir, zanamivi, acyclovir, brivudine, docosanol, famiciclovir, idoxuridine, penciclovir, valacyclovir, ribavirin, gangciclovir, trifluoridine, zidovudine, didanosine, zalcitabine, lamivudine, abacavir, atazanavir, atripla, zidovudine, combivir, darunavir, didanosine, delavirdine, dolutegravir, efavirenz, elvitegravir, enfuvirtide, etravirine, eviplera, fosamprenavir, emtricitabine, indinavir, kivexa, lopinavir, ritonavir, maraviroc, nelfinavir, nevirapine, raltegravir, rilpivirine, ritonavir, saquinavir, stribild, tenofovir, tenofovir, tipranavir, triomine, trizivir, truvada, and α-interfereon) may also be combined in compositions of the disclosure. See, generally, The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, 15th Ed., Berkow et al., eds., 1987, Rahway, N.J., pages 2499-2506 and 46-49, respectively). Other therapeutic agents are also within the scope of this disclosure. Two or more combined compounds may be used together or sequentially. Such compounds may be administered using a separate administration schedule relative to the administration schedule of the active agents of the disclosure. The administration schedules may also be the same or have overlap.

Toxicity and therapeutic efficacy of such compounds can be determined by standard pharmaceutical procedures in cell cultures or experimental animals, e.g., for determining the LD50 (the dose lethal to 50% of the population) and the ED50 (the dose therapeutically effective in 50% of the population). The dose ratio between toxic and therapeutic effects is the therapeutic index and it can be expressed as the ratio LD50/ED50. Compounds which exhibit high therapeutic indices are preferred.

The data obtained from cell culture assays and animal studies can be used in formulation a range of dosage for use in humans. The dosage of compositions of the disclosure lies generally within a range of circulating concentrations that include the ED50 with little or no toxicity. The dosage may vary within this range depending upon the dosage form employed and the route of administration utilized. For any compound used in the method of the disclosure, the therapeutically effective dose can be estimated initially from cell culture assays. A dose may be formulated in animal models to achieve a circulating plasma concentration range of the compound or, when appropriate, of the polypeptide product of a target sequence (e.g., achieving a decreased concentration of the polypeptide) that includes the IC50 (i.e., the concentration of the test compound which achieves a half-maximal inhibition of symptoms), as determined in cell culture. Such information can be used to more accurately determine useful doses for a patient, as defined above (includes, e.g., humans, camelids, camel, llamas, and alpacas). Levels in plasma may be measured, for example, by high performance liquid chromatography.

In addition to their administration individually or as a plurality, as discussed above, the vaccines of the disclosure can be administered in combination with other known agents effective in treatment of pathological processes mediated by MERS-CoV expression or by another coronavirus—such as those listed above and others as well. In any event, the administering physician can adjust the amount and timing of vaccine administration on the basis of results observed using standard measures of efficacy known in the art or described herein.

The present disclosure contemplates any suitable means or method for administering the vaccine compositions of the disclosure. The skilled artisan will appreciate that the particular means of administration may depend upon whether the vaccine composition comprises recombinant rabies virus virions (e.g., with expressed MERS-CoV glycoprotein fragment presented at surface of the virion) or whether the vaccine to be administered is a nucleic acid-based vaccine, i.e., where the vaccine comprises a recombinant rabies virus vector of the disclosure which has been modified to express a coronavirus immunogenic protein fragment.

In certain embodiments, administration of any of the vaccines of the disclosure may be carried out by, for example, parenteral injection (such as intraperitoneal, subcutaneous, or intramuscular injection), in ovo injection of birds, orally, or by topical application of the virus (typically carried in a pharmaceutical formulation) to an airway surface. Topical application of a vaccine of the disclosure to an airway surface can be carried out by intranasal administration (e.g., by use of dropper, swab, or inhaler which deposits a pharmaceutical formulation intranasally). Topical application of a vaccine of the disclosure to an airway surface can also be carried out by inhalation administration, such as by creating respirable particles of a pharmaceutical formulation (including both solid particles and liquid particles) containing the replicon as an aerosol suspension, and then causing the subject to inhale the respirable particles. Methods and apparatus for administering respirable particles of pharmaceutical formulations are well known, and any conventional technique can be employed. Oral administration may be in the form of an ingestible liquid or solid formulation. As noted above, one particular embodiment is subcutaneous injection, and another is intramuscular injection.

When the vaccine of the disclosure is RNA or DNA (e.g., a recombinant rabies virus vaccine vector expressing a coronavirus glycoprotein fragment, e.g., MERS-CoV glycoprotein fragment), the vaccine vector RNA or DNA can be administered directly using techniques such as delivery on gold beads (gene gun), delivery by liposomes, or by direct injection, among other methods known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Any one or more nucleotide constructs described above can be use in any combination effective to elicit an immunogenic response in a subject. Generally, the nucleic acid vaccine administered may be in an amount of about 1-5 μg of nucleic acid per dose and will depend on the subject to be treated, capacity of the subject's immune system to develop the desired immune response, and the degree of protection desired. Precise amounts of the vaccine to be administered may depend on the judgement of the practitioner and may be peculiar to each subject and antigen.

Lipid based microsphere delivery systems can also be used to deliver the vaccines of the disclosure, in particular, the vaccine vector molecules of the disclosure. Optionally, such systems can be modified such that they specifically target specific cells and/or tissues and/or organs of the body, e.g., infection sites. Methods for preparing such systems will be well known to those having ordinary skill in the art. For example, such vector-delivering microspheres can be modified to comprise one or more ligands or targeting moieties which allow the microsphere to bind and/or interact specifically with a receptor or other target on a target cell or tissue.

Accordingly, in one aspect, the present disclosure provides recombinant rabies vector formulations comprised of a lipid-based carrier system, such as a stabilized nucleic acid-lipid particle, cationic lipid or liposome nucleic acid complexes (i.e., lipoplexes), a liposome, a micelle, a virosome, or a mixture thereof, which optionally may be modified to contain a moiety that enables it to be targeted to one or more cells or tissues of the gastrointestinal tract. In other embodiments, the carrier system is a polymer-based carrier system such as a cationic polymer-nucleic acid complex (i.e., polyplex), which optionally may be modified to contain a moiety that enables it to be targeted to one or more desired cells or tissues. In additional embodiments, the carrier system is a cyclodextrin-based carrier system, such as a cyclodextrin polymer-nucleic acid complex, which optionally may be modified to contain a moiety that enables it to be targeted to one or more desired cells or tissues. In further embodiments, the carrier system is a protein-based carrier system such as a cationic peptide-nucleic acid complex. Nucleic acid-lipid and/or protein-lipid particles and their method of preparation are disclosed in, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,753,613; 5,785,992; 5,705,385; 5,976,567; 5,981,501; 6,110,745; and 6,320,017; and PCT Publication No. WO 96/40964, which are all herein incorporated by reference.

The lipoplexes of the disclosure can include non-cationic lipids used in the formulations of the present disclosure, which include any of a variety of neutral uncharged, zwitterionic, or anionic lipids capable of producing a stable complex. Such non-cationic lipids can be neutral or negatively charged. Examples of non-cationic lipids include, without limitation, phospholipid-related materials such as lecithin, phosphatidylethanolamine, lysolecithin, lysophosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylinositol, sphingomyelin, egg sphingomyelin (ESM), cephalin, cardiolipin, phosphatidic acid, cerebrosides, dicetylphosphate, distearoylphosphatidylcholine (DSPC), dioleoylphosphatidylcholine (DOPC), dipahnitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), dioleoylphosphatidylglycerol (DOPG), dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol (DPPG), dioleoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE), palmitoyloleoyl-phosphatidylcholine (POPC), palmitoyloleoyl-phosphatidylethanolamine (POPE), palmitoyloleyol-phosphatidylglycerol (POPG), dioleoylphosphatidylethanolamine 4-(N-maleimidomethyl)-cyclohexane-1-carboxylate (DOPE-mal), dipalmitoyl-phosphatidylethanolamine (DPPE), dimyristoyl-phosphatidylethanolamine (DMPE), distearoyl-phosphatidylethanolamine (DSPE), monomethyl-phosphatidylethanolamine, dimethyl-phosphatidylethanolamine, dielaidoyl-phosphatidylethanolamine (DEPE), and stearoyloleoyl-phosphatidylethanolamine (SOPE).

Non-cationic lipids or sterols such as cholesterol may also be present in such microspheres. Additional nonphosphorous containing lipids include, e.g., stearylamine, dodecylamine, hexadecylamine, acetyl palmitate, glycerolricinoleate, hexadecyl stereate, isopropyl myristate, amphoteric acrylic polymers, triethanolamine-lauryl sulfate, alkyl-aryl sulfate polyethyloxylated fatty acid amides, dioctadecyldimethyl ammonium bromide, ceramide, diacylphosphatidylcholine, diacylphosphatidylethanolamine, and the like. Other lipids such as lysophosphatidylcholine and lysophosphatidylethanolamine may be present. Non-cationic lipids also include polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based polymers such as PEG 2000, PEG 5000, and polyethylene glycol conjugated to phospholipids or to ceramides (referred to as PEG-Cer), as described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/316,429.

Non-limiting examples of additional lipid-based carrier systems suitable for use in the present disclosure include lipoplexes (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Publication No. 20030203865; and Zhang et al., J Control Release, 100:165-180 (2004)), pH-sensitive lipoplexes (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Publication No. 2002/0192275), reversibly masked lipoplexes (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Publication Nos. 2003/0180950), cationic lipid-based compositions (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,756,054; and U.S. Patent Publication No. 2005/0234232), cationic liposomes (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Publication Nos. 2003/0229040, 2002/0160038, and 2002/0012998; U.S. Pat. No. 5,908,635; and PCT Publication No. WO 01/72283), anionic liposomes (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Publication No. 2003/0026831), pH-sensitive liposomes (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Publication No. 2002/0192274; and AU 2003/210303), antibody-coated liposomes (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Publication No. 2003/0108597; and PCT Publication No. WO 00/50008), cell-type specific liposomes (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Publication No. 2003/0198664), liposomes containing nucleic acid and peptides (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,207,456), liposomes containing lipids derivatized with releasable hydrophilic polymers (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Publication No. 2003/0031704), lipid-entrapped nucleic acid (see, e.g., PCT Publication Nos. WO 03/057190 and WO 03/059322), lipid-encapsulated nucleic acid (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Publication No. 2003/0129221; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,756,122), other liposomal compositions (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Publication Nos. 2003/0035829 and 2003/0072794; and U.S. Pat. No. 6,200,599), stabilized mixtures of liposomes and emulsions (see, e.g., EP1304160), emulsion compositions (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,747,014), and nucleic acid micro-emulsions (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Publication No. 2005/0037086).

In another embodiment, administration may be by accelerated-particle gene delivery.

The technique of accelerated-particle gene delivery is based on the coating of genetic constructions to be delivered into cells onto extremely small carrier particles, which are designed to be small in relation to the cells sought to be transformed by the process. The coated carrier particles are then physically accelerated toward the cells to be transformed such that the carrier particles lodge in the interior of the target cells. This technique can be used either with cells in vitro or in vivo. At some frequency, the DNA which has been previously coated onto the carrier particles is expressed in the target cells. This gene expression technique has been demonstrated to work in procaryotes and eukaryotes, from bacteria and yeasts to higher plants and animals. Thus, the accelerated particle method provides a convenient methodology for delivering genes into the cells of a wide variety of tissue types, and offers the capability of delivering those genes to cells in situ and in vivo without any adverse impact or effect on the treated individual. Therefore, the accelerated particle method is also preferred in that it allows a genetic vaccine construction capable of eliciting an immune response to be directed both to a particular tissue, and to a particular cell layer in a tissue, by varying the delivery site and the force with which the particles are accelerated, respectively. This technique is thus particularly suited for delivery of genes for antigenic proteins into the epidermis.

Thus, with regard to delivery of the recombinant rabies vaccine vectors of the disclosure, the disclosure also contemplates that aqueous droplets containing naked vector can be delivered by suitable acceleration techniques into the tissues of the individual sought to be vaccinated. At some frequency, such “naked” vector material will be taken up in the treated tissues.

The general approach of accelerated particle gene transfection technology is described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,945,050. An instrument based on an improved variant of that approach is available commercially from BioRad Laboratories. An alternative approach to an accelerated particle transfection apparatus is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,015,580 which, while directed to the transfection of soybean plants, describes an apparatus which is equally adaptable for use with mammalian cells and intact whole mammals. U.S. Pat. No. 5,149,655 describes a convenient hand-held version of an accelerated particle gene delivery device. Other such devices can be based on other propulsive sources using, for example, compressed gas as a motive force. A preferred apparatus and method for delivering genetic material in the present disclosure is described in published PCT patent application PCT/US95/00780 and in U.S. Pat. No. 5,584,807 which will issue on Dec. 17, 1996. Both are incorporated herein by reference.

A “genetic vaccine,” i.e., a recombinant rabies vaccine vector (as opposed to a composition of rabies virions, which are also contemplated herein) can be delivered in a non-invasive manner to a variety of susceptible tissue types in order to achieve the desired antigenic response in the individual. Most advantageously, the genetic vaccine can be introduced into the epidermis. Such delivery, it has been found, will produce a systemic humoral immune response, a memory response, and a cytotoxic immune response. When delivering a genetic vaccine to skin cells, it was once thought desirable to remove or perforate the stratum corneum.

To obtain additional effectiveness from this technique, it may also be desirable that the genes be delivered to a mucosal tissue surface, in order to ensure that mucosal, humoral and cellular immune responses are produced in the vaccinated individual. It is envisioned that there are a variety of suitable delivery sites available including any number of sites on the epidermis, peripheral blood cells, i.e. lymphocytes, which could be treated in vitro and placed back into the individual, and a variety of oral, upper respiratory, and genital mucosal surfaces.

The term “transfected” is used herein to refer to cells which have incorporated the delivered foreign genetic vaccine construction (e.g., the recombinant rabies vaccine vectors), whichever delivery technique is used. The term transfection is used in preference to the term “transformation,” to avoid the ambiguity inherent in the latter term, which is also used to refer to cellular changes in the process of oncogenesis. The term “infection” pertains to the normal molecular cellular uptake process by which a virus is introduced into a cell. Such cells are sometimes said to be “susceptible” to infection.

In some embodiments, when inducing cellular, humoral, and protective immune responses after genetic vaccination, preferred target cells are epidermal cells, rather than cells of deeper skin layers such as the dermis. Epidermal cells are preferred recipients of genetic vaccines because they are the most accessible cells of the body and may, therefore, be immunized non-invasively. Secondly, in addition to eliciting a humoral immune response, genetically immunized epidermal cells also elicit a cytotoxic immune response that is stronger than that generated in sub-epidermal cells. Delivery to epidermis also has the advantages of being less invasive and delivering to cells which are ultimately sloughed by the body.

The administration of the vaccines of the present disclosure (e.g., the recombinant rabies virions and/or the recombinant rabies vaccine vectors of the disclosure) by any of the above-described means can be in accordance with any suitable vaccination schedule, e.g., day 0, one month, four months, and twelve months from day 0. However, generally speaking, the vaccines described herein may also be given in a single dose schedule, or preferably a multiple dose schedule in which a primary course of vaccination may be with 1-10 separate doses, followed by other doses given at subsequent time intervals required to maintain and or reinforce the immune response, for example, at 1-4 months for a second dose, and if needed, a subsequent dose(s) after several months. Other examples of suitable immunization schedules include: (i) 0, 1 month and 6 months, (ii) 0, 7 days and 1 month, (iii) 0 and 1 month, (iv) 0 and 6 months, (v) 0, 1 month and 2 months, or other schedules sufficient to elicit the desired immune responses expected to confer protective immunity, or reduce disease symptoms, or reduce severity of disease.

The present disclosure, in other aspects, provides methods for evaluating a sample for the presence of antibodies raised against rabies and/or a coronavirus, e.g., MERS-CoV. The disclosure contemplates that such methods may be useful, for example, in evaluating whether a tissue sample contains antibodies against MERS-CoV, another coronavirus or rabies, which may be useful in detecting whether a person or animal was exposed to such pathogens. Such detection methods may also be useful in monitoring a subject's blood or other tissues for evidence that an immune response has been induced against a vaccine of the disclosure.

In a further embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a method of detecting the presence of antibodies against MERS-CoV in a sample. Using standard methodology well known in the art, a diagnostic assay can be constructed by coating on a surface (i.e. a solid support for example, a microtitration plate, a membrane (e.g. nitrocellulose membrane) or a dipstick), all or a unique portion of any of the MERS-CoV proteins described above or any combination thereof, and contacting it with the serum of a person or animal suspected of having MERS-CoV. The presence of a resulting complex formed between the MERS-CoV protein(s) and serum antibodies specific therefor can be detected by any of the known methods common in the art, such as fluorescent antibody spectroscopy or colorimetry. This method of detection can be used, for example, for the diagnosis of MERS-CoV infection and for determining the degree to which an individual has developed virus-specific antibodies after administration of a vaccine.

In yet another embodiment, the present disclosure relates to methods for detecting the presence of virion proteins from rabies, a coronavirus or MERS-CoV in a sample. Antibodies against glycoproteins and nucleproteins could be used for diagnostic assays. Using standard methodology well known in the art, a diagnostics assay can be constructed by coating on a surface (i.e. a solid support, for example, a microtitration plate or a membrane (e.g. nitrocellulose membrane)), antibodies specific for any of the MERS-CoV proteins described above, and contacting it with serum or a tissue sample of a person suspected of having MERS-CoV infection. The presence of a resulting complex formed between the protein or proteins in the serum and antibodies specific therefor can be detected by any of the known methods common in the art, such as fluorescent antibody spectroscopy or colorimetry. This method of detection can be used, for example, for the diagnosis of MERS-CoV infection.

In yet another embodiment, the present disclosure relates to DNA or nucleotide sequences for use in detecting the presence of rabies virus or coronavirus, e.g., MERS-CoV, using the reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) or by some other suitable means for detection of specific nucleotide sequences. The nucleotide sequence of the present disclosure can be used to design primers which specifically bind to the viral RNA for the purpose of detecting the presence of MERS-CoV or for measuring the amount of MERS-CoV in a sample. The primers can be any length ranging from 7 to 400 nucleotides, preferably at least 10 to 15 nucleotides, or more preferably 18 to 40 nucleotides. Reagents and controls necessary for PCR reactions are well known in the art. The amplified products can then be analyzed for the presence of viral sequences, for example by gel fractionation, with or without hybridization, by radiochemistry, and immunochemistry techniques, or other suitable techniques.

In yet another embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a diagnostic kit that includes a vaccine composition of the disclosure, and optionally a means for detecting whether an immune response is induced following the administration of the vaccine, and further, optionally a means for administering the vaccine of the disclosure, and still further, optionally a set of instructions indicated a procedure for administering the vaccine and evaluating its effectivity on the immune response.

Depending on how the kit is to be operated, the kit may also include one or more additional vaccine compositions of the disclosure, wherein each vaccine composition comprises a recombinant rabies virus vector expressing a different coronavirus protein fragment, e.g., an MERS-CoV glycoprotein immunogenic fragment.

It will be appreciated that certain components of the kits will vary depending on what subject is being vaccinated and/or from which samples are to be drawn. Certain subjects can include, for example, human, non-human primate, animal, e.g., horse, donkey, pig, mouse, hamster, monkey, or other mammals, birds. For example, where a rabies vaccine vector is to be administered to a human, the kit may include a skin path, whereas where the administration is to a non-human primate, the kit may include instead a syringe.

In certain embodiments, the kits may also include an immunodetection reagent or label for the detection of the antibodies induced by the vaccination or to detect samples for the presence of rabies or coronavirus peptides or fragments thereof. Suitable detection reagents are well known in the art as exemplified by radioactive, enzymatic or otherwise chromogenic ligands, which are typically employed in association with the antigen and/or antibody, or in association with a second antibody having specificity for first antibody. Thus, the reaction is detected or quantified by means of detecting or quantifying the label. Immunodetection reagents and processes suitable for application in connection with the novel methods of the present disclosure are generally well known in the art.

The reagents may also include ancillary agents such as buffering agents and protein stabilizing agents, e.g., polysaccharides and the like. The kit may further include, where necessary, agents for reducing background interference in a test, agents for increasing signal, apparatus for conducting a test, calibration curves and charts, standardization curves and charts, and the like.

In a further embodiment, such a kit can comprise instructions for suitable operational parameters in the form of a label or separate insert.

The following examples are included to demonstrate preferred embodiments of the disclosure. It should be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the techniques disclosed in the examples which follow represent techniques discovered by the inventors and thought to function well in the practice of the disclosure, and thus can be considered to constitute preferred modes for its practice. However, those of skill in the art should, in light of the present disclosure, appreciate that many changes can be made in the specific embodiments which are disclosed and still obtain a like or similar result without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure.

EXAMPLES

The materials, compositions, and methods described herein are intended to be representative examples of the invention, and it will be understood that the scope of the invention is not limited by the scope of the examples. Those skilled in the art will recognize that the invention may be practiced with variations on the disclosed materials, compositions and methods, and such variations are regarded as within the ambit of the disclosure.

The collective objective of these Examples was to identify novel vaccine candidates for MERS-CoV with a maximum potential of licensure and utilization. To this end, the rabies virus (RABV) vaccine platform was chosen. This platform would allow rapid development of replication-competent, replication-deficient, and chemically inactivated vaccine candidates to increase the likelihood that an appropriate balance between vaccine immunogenicity and reactogenicity could be achieved.

RABV is a non-segmented, negative strand RNA virus of the Rhabdoviridae family. Although wild type RABV almost always causes a fatal CNS disease in mammalian species (Schnell et al., 2010), in its attenuated form, the RABV vaccine does not cause fatal CNS disease (Cenna et al., 2008; Faber et al., 2005; Faul et al., 2009; Faul et al., 2008; McGettigan et al., 2006; McGettigan et al., 2003a; McGettigan et al., 2003b; Siler et al., 2002; Snook et al., 2008; Tan et al., 2005). The RABV vaccine vectors can be generated from a reverse genetics system derived from the live attenuated SAD B19 RABV vaccine that is used for wildlife vaccination in Europe (Vos et al., 1999; Vos et al., 2002). Further attenuated RABV vectored vaccines have been generated by the introduction of mutations in the RABV glycoprotein (G), as well as the deletion of the RABV G that are propagated on trans-complementing cell lines that express RABV G (Gomme et al., 2010; McGettigan et al., 2003b; McKenna et al., 2004). These recombinant viruses have been demonstrated to be growth-deficient or -restricted in vitro and in vivo and are strongly immunogenic (Gomme et al., 2010; McGettigan et al., 2003b; McKenna et al., 2004). Furthermore, beta-propiolactone-mediated inactivation of RABV vectored vaccines has been used to generate killed vaccine candidates that should have optimal safety profiles (Siler et al., 2002; Smith et al., 2006).

The Examples that follow describe the generation of live-attenuated and inactivated RABV vaccines expressing MERS-CoV S protein or portions thereof and demonstrate their molecular properties, virulence, immunogenicity, and protective efficacy against RABV and MERS-CoV in mice. In addition to the advantages of the RABV vaccine platform described above, it is anticipated that the current advanced state of RABV vaccine safety, production, and distribution may ease the clinical development of these MERS-CoV S vaccines. In addition, RABV causes an estimated 24,000 deaths per year in Africa so a bivalent RABV/MERS-CoV vaccine would be an effective public health tool in Central Africa.

To determine if a RABV-based vaccine would be safe and effective against MERS-CoV, the inventors produced a RABV vector that contains the MERS-CoV S1 domain of the MERS-CoV S gene fused to the RABV G protein C terminal end. The inventors then chemically inactivated the virus and tested the vaccine in a mouse model of MERS-CoV infection. The mice produced high titers of neutralizing antibody with vaccination and were then challenged with MERS-CoV. The RABV/MERS-S vaccinated mice were fully protected from MERS-CoV, whereas the control mice displayed high levels of MERS-CoV in the lungs. These data demonstrate the utility of an inactivated RABV/MERS-S-based vaccine for blocking MERS-CoV replication in vivo, suggesting that RABV vaccines have potential for use in both camels and humans in areas with endemic MERS-CoV infections

Example 1. Methods and Materials Used Throughout Examples

cDNA Construction of Vaccine Vectors. The vaccine vector BNSP333 has been described previously (36). Full-length MERS-CoV S protein cDNA and fragments of S with C-terminal truncations were amplified from a wild-type MERS-CoV cDNA clone provided by the Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center, Division of Global Emerging Infections Surveillance and Response System). Primers were designed to include a BsiWI site at the 5′-end and a SpeI site at the 3′-end to allow insertion into BNSP333. The S1-RABV G chimera was assembled using overlap extension PCR from codon-optimized cDNA encoding amino acids 1-750 of MERS-CoV S (Sinobiological) and codon-optimized cDNA encoding amino acids 428-524 of the SAD-B19 RABV glycoprotein (Genscript). Recombinant clones were verified by DNA sequencing and used to recover infectious virus as previously described. Codons 18-750 of the spike protein gene were amplified using codon-optimized cDNA as a template to generate the expression plasmid for production of soluble S1. The PCR product was digested with BglII and NotI and cloned into the pDISPLAY vector (Invitrogen Inc.).

Virus Purification. Recombinant RABV were recovered as described previously (37). For large-scale purification of virus particles, 2-stack cell culture chambers were seeded with VERO cells in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium, (DMEM) supplemented with 5% fetal calf serum (FCS). Prior to adding virus, the cells were washed with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and then infected at low multiplicity of infection (0.01-0.05) in serum-free medium at 34° C. Supernatant was collected at 3- to 4-day intervals and replaced with fresh serum-free medium. Cell culture media were centrifuged at low speed for 10 min to remove debris and filtered through 0.45 μm PES membrane filters. The filtered supernatant was then concentrated by tangential flow filtration in mPES hollow fiber cartridges (SpectrumLabs) followed by ultracentrifugation on 20% sucrose cushions in a SW32Ti rotor for 2 hours at 25000 rpm (46000 g). Pelleted virus was resuspended in PBS and protein content measured using a BCA Protein Assay Kit (PIERCE). Following the addition of PBS to adjust the protein concentration to 1 mg/ml, beta-Propriolactone was added at a concentration of 0.05% (v/v) to inactivate virus. After overnight incubation at 4° C., inactivated particles were incubated at 37° C. for 30 minutes and subsequently frozen in aliquots at ⁻80° C. To verify complete inactivation/absence of infectious virus, 10 μg of inactivated virus was inoculated in a flask seeded with BSR cells. Four days after inoculation, 1/10th of supernatant was passaged on fresh BSR cells. Four days post inoculation, the cells were fixed and stained with FITC-labeled monoclonal antibody against RABV nucleoprotein.

Protein Gel Analysis and Western Blotting. Purified virus particles were denatured in urea buffer (125 mM Tris-HCl pH 6.8, 8 M urea, 4% sodium dodecyl sulfate, 5% beta-mercaptoethanol, 0.02% bromophenol blue) at 95° C. for 5 minutes. Then 3 μg of protein were resolved on a 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gel and thereafter stained overnight with Sypro Ruby for total protein analysis or transferred onto a nitrocellulose membrane in Towbin buffer (192 mM glycine, 25 mm Tris, 20% methanol) for western blot (WB) analysis. The nitrocellulose membrane was then blocked in TBST (100 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.9, 150 mM NaCl, 0.01% Tween20) containing 5% (w/v) non-fat dried milk at room temperature for 1 h. After blocking, the membrane was incubated overnight with rabbit antisera specific for the RABV glycoprotein (kindly provided by Dr. Dietzschold, Thomas Jefferson University) or rabbit serum against the S1 or S2 subunit of MERS-CoV S (Sinobiological) at a dilution of 1:1000 in PBS containing 5% BSA. After washing, the blot was incubated for 1 hour with anti-rabbit-IgG HRP diluted 1:50,000 in blocking buffer. Bands were developed with SuperSignal West Dura Chemiluminescent substrate (PIERCE). Images were captured using a FluorChem M CCD imaging system (ProteinSimple). PageRuler prestained protein ladder (ThermoScientific) was used for molecular weight determination.

Immunofluorescence. VERO E6 cells were seeded on coverslips in DMEM and infected the following day with MERS-S expressing RABV or control RABV in Optimem at 34° C. for 1 hour. After removal of the inoculum and addition of fresh DMEM medium containing 5% FCS, the cells were incubated at 34° C. for 60 hours. At the end of the incubation, the cells were washed with PBS, fixed in 2% PFA for 30 minutes, permeabilized in PBS containing 0.2% Tween-20 for 15 min, washed with PBS, and blocked with PBS containing 5% BSA. The cells were then stained for 1-2 hours at room temperature with rabbit polyclonal antiserum against MERS-CoV S (Sinobiological, 4 μg/ml), monoclonal antibody 1C5 against RABV glycoprotein (Abcam, 4 μg/ml), or FITC-conjugated monoclonal antibody against RABV nucleoprotein (Fujirebio) diluted 1:200 in PBS containing 2% BSA. Following washing with PBS and incubation with Cy2- or Cy3-conjugated anti-rabbit IgG secondary antibody (Jackson Immunoresearch, 1:250 in PBS containing 5% BSA), the cells were mounted in ProLong Gold antifade solution. Images were acquired using a microscope (Axioskop 40, Carl Zeiss) equipped with 20× and 40× PlanNeofluar lenses and a cooled CCD camera (ProgresCFcool, Jenoptik). Composite images were prepared using Image J.

Animal Ethics Statement. This study was carried out in strict adherence to recommendations described in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, the Office of Animal Welfare and the United States Department of Agriculture. All animal work was approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) at Thomas Jefferson University and at the University of Maryland. All procedures were carried out under isoflurane anesthesia by trained personnel and under the supervision of veterinary staff. Mice were housed in cages in groups of five, under controlled humidity, temperature, and light (12 hour light/12 hour dark cycles) conditions. Food and water were available ad libidum.

Immunizations. Six-to-eight week old female BALB/c mice were purchased from the Jackson Laboratory. Ten mice were inoculated intramuscularly with 10 μg of chemically inactivated BNSP333-S1-G particles in 100 μl PBS and boosted twice with the same amount of virus on day 7 and day 21, respectively. Groups of five mice were immunized with BNSP333-GP, BNSP333, or PBS as controls following the same immunization schedule. Blood samples were collected by retro-orbital bleed immediately prior to the first immunization and in weekly intervals thereafter until day 35 post immunization.

ELISA. Humoral responses to RABV G and EBOV GP protein were measured by an indirect ELISA as described previously (28). To determine antibody responses to the S protein of MERS-CoV, an indirect ELISA was developed utilizing purified S1 protein. The soluble S1 protein was produced by transfecting 293T cells with a plasmid that expresses a secreted S1 ectodomain (amino acids 18-750) fused to an N-terminal HA tag. Purification of the HA-tagged protein from the supernatant of transfected cells was carried out as described previously (38). Maxisorp 4 HBX 96-well plates (Nunc) were coated overnight at 4° C. with 100 μl of purified S1 (0.5 μg/ml) in 50 mM carbonate buffer (pH 9.6). Following washing with PBS containing 0.05% (w/v) Tween 20 (PBST) and blocking with PBST buffer containing 5% dried milk, the plates were incubated overnight with threefold serial dilutions of mouse sera in PBS containing 0.5% (w/v) BSA. This was followed by three wash cycles, incubation with HRP-conjugated goat anti-mouse-IgG secondary antibody (Jackson Immunoresearch, 1:10.000 in PBST) for 2 hours at room temperature, three more wash cycles, and the addition of OPD substrate (Sigma-Aldrich). Color development was stopped by the addition of 50 μl of 3M H₂SO₄ per well, and optical density was measured at 490 nm using an ELX800 plate reader (Biotek). Data were analyzed with GraphPad Prism (Version 6.0 g) using 4-parameter nonlinear regression.

Infection and Analysis of MERS-CoV Replication in Vaccinated Mice. Vaccinated mice were transduced with an adenovirus vector by intranasal inoculation and left for 4 days to ensure expression of DPP4, as has been described previously (39). Transduced mice were then infected with MERS-CoV (Jordan) as described previously (40), except that mice were inoculated with 2.5×10³ pfu of MERS-CoV (Jordan) in 50 μl total volume. At 4 days post-infection, MERS-CoV (Jordan) titers were determined by plaque assay as described previously (40). MERS-CoV RNA was determined by PCR, as described previously (40), except that the endogenous control was mouse transferrin receptor protein 1 (TFRC) using the following forward primer: ATGACGTTGAATTGAACCTGGACTA (SEQ ID NO: 17); reverse primer: GTCTCCACGAGCGGAATACAG (SEQ ID NO: 18); and probe: ABY-ATCAGGGATATGGGTCTAAGTCTACAGTGG-QSY (SEQ ID NO: 19) in triplex with the previously described MERS-CoV primer/probe sets to UpE and membrane (M) protein mRNA (41).

MERS-CoV neutralization assays. Serum from vaccinated mice was assessed for MERS-CoV neutralization activity as described previously (20).

Example 2. Construction of an Attenuated RABV Expressing MERS-CoV Spike Protein

The BNSP333 vaccine vector utilized here is derived from the attenuated RABV strain SAD-B19 (42). Several modifications were introduced into the parent strain to increase safety and maximize expression of foreign genes. The inventors have previously shown that foreign genes can be stably introduced into this vector (28, 36, 38, 43, 44). Moreover, the inventors showed that expression of foreign antigens from a position between the RABV N and P gene, as well as codon optimization for human cells of the target gene, results in the highest expression level of the foreign antigen. Additionally, replacing the arginine with glutamic acid at position 333 (333R→333E) within the RABV glycoprotein (G) further reduces the pathogenicity of the already highly attenuated vector (36). The inventors have successfully used this improved vector to generate candidate vaccines against several emerging zoonotic viral diseases like Ebola virus (EBOV) and Henipaviruse (HeV) (28, 38).

Based on our previous work in constructing a vaccine for EBOV, the inventors chose to introduce the MERS-CoV S protein into the cBNSP333. MERS-CoV S is a glycoprotein anchored in the membrane of the MERS-CoV virions, and therefore a major target for protective antibodies. First, the inventors produced a BNSP333 clone containing the full length wild-type MERS-CoV S gene (FIG. 1). The inventors recovered the recombinant BNSP333-S virus and prepared viral stocks of BNSP333-S on BSR cells (a Baby Hamster Kidney (BHK) cell clone) and Vero cells. The inventors used both cell lines because while the parental RABV vector BNSP333 grows to the highest titers on BSR cells, Vero cells are more appropriate for the production of human vaccines.

Next, the inventors analyzed the expression of MERS-CoV S from BNSP333-S. For this approach, Vero cells were infected at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 0.01 with BNSP333-S or BNSP333-GP as a control. When coronavirus S proteins were expressed on the surface of hDDP4-expressing cells in heterologous expression systems, they led to fusion and syncytia formation with neighboring cells expressing the cognate receptor. Analysis by immune fluorescence and staining with RABV G-specific antibodies indicated that the cells were infected (FIGS. 2A and 2B, left panels). Moreover, BNSP333-S infected cells showed large multinucleated cells (FIG. 2A, left panel), which indicated fusion-competent MERS-CoV S protein expression from BNSP333-S.

Example 3. Expression of Full Length MERS-CoV S Inhibits Expression of RABV G Protein and Reduces Viral Titers Dramatically

After recovery of the new vaccine vector, the inventors noticed that the cells infected with BNSP333-S produced less virus when compared to cells infected with BNSP333 or to other vaccine vectors based on BNSP333, such as FILORAB1. Additionally, the inventors wanted to analyze MERS-CoV S protein incorporation into RABV virions because incorporation is a prerequisite to using this vaccine in an inactivated form. To analyze the growth and incorporation of MERS-CoV S into RABV particles, Vero and BSR cells in T-150 flasks were infected at an MOI of 0.01 with BNSP333, SPBN, or BNSP333-S, and tissue culture supernatants were harvested over a period of 10-14 days. The inventors used ultracentrifugation to concentrate virus particles in clarified supernatant and analyzed SDS-PAGE for RABV G and MERS-CoV S antigens. After staining with SyproRuby, several protein bands were detected for BNSP333 and SPBN, and these bands corresponded in size to the RABV N, P, M, G, and L proteins in both BSR and VERO cells (FIG. 3A). However, the virions collected from the supernatants of cells infected with BNSP333-S seemed to contain no RABV G protein, or at least a greatly reduced amount. However, the inventors detected additional bands of the expected size for MERS-CoV S protein (180 kDa) and the S1 subunit (110-120 kDa) in both Vero and BSR cells.

To verify the reduced level of RABV G in the virions of BNSP333-S, as well as to confirm the presence of MERS-CoV S, the inventors performed a WB analysis. Using a rabbit serum specific for MERS-CoV S, the inventors detected a protein of the expected size for S1 BNSP333-S in BNSP333-S virions derived from Vero or BSR cells (FIG. 3B). The inventors transferred a similar SDS-PAGE as described above to a nitrocellulose membrane and then incubated the WB with a mixture of four different monoclonal antibodies directed against RABV G. As shown in FIG. 3C, the RABV G was greatly reduced in BNSP333-S virions.

Example 4. Deletion of the ER Retention Signal of MERS-CoV S Improves its Expression and Incorporation

The S protein of coronaviruses accumulates in intracellular compartments where budding and maturation of virus particles occurs. The inventors therefore hypothesized that the retention of MERS-CoV S in the ER might interfere with proper processing and transport of the RABV G protein. This hypothesis was supported by prior observations that truncation of the C-terminal domains of the SARS and TGEV S proteins increases incorporation of the S protein into VSV particles. Therefore, the inventors constructed two MERS-CoV S deletion mutants by deleting 19 or 29 amino acids of the MERS-CoV S protein cytoplasmic domain (CD) (FIG. 1 BNSP333-SΔ19 and BNSP333-SΔ29). Virions were purified from the supernatants of BSR and VERO cells infected with BSNP333, BNSP333 S, BNSP333 SΔ19, and BNSP333Δ29. Analysis by SDS-PAGE and WB showed that removing 19 amino acids significantly improved the incorporation of MERS-CoV S protein in BNSP333 Δ19 (FIG. 4). Removing 29 amino acids of the CD within BNSP333-SΔ29 substantially decreased MERS-CoV S incorporation into virions. However, expression of RABV G was still severely affected by the expression of MERS-CoV S, SΔ19, or SΔ29, and RABV G was only detected by WB. Of note, the lack of RABV G incorporation also reduced the titers of BNSP333-SΔ19 and BNSP333-SΔ29, and therefore, these constructs were not considered suitable for further development of the MERS-CoV vaccine.

Example 5. Expression of S1 Fused to the C-Terminal Part of RABV G Results in Strong Incorporation of RABV G-MERS-CoV-S1 Fusion Protein

Previous studies have shown that the fusion domain of MERS-CoV S is located within the S2 subunit of the MERS-CoV S, whereas the S1 subunit of MERS-CoV S contains the receptor-binding domain (RBD). The inventors hypothesized that the putative retention signals in the CD and the fusion activity of the S2 domain interfered with transport of RABV G through the Golgi complex and incorporation of G into virus particles at the plasma membrane. Moreover, research by others indicates that antibodies directed against the RBD can protect against disease, and therefore expression of S1 might be sufficient to induce protective immune responses against MERS-CoV. Hence, the inventors constructed a new vaccine vector (BNSP333-S1) expressing the N-terminal 750 amino acids of MERS S fused to a truncated RABV glycoprotein, which comprises 31 amino acids of the ectodomain (ED) of RABV G and the complete CD and the transmembrane domain of RABV G to allow chimeric glycoprotein incorporation into RABV virions. The chimeric MERS-CoV S1/RABV G protein utilizes the original MERS-CoV ER translocation sequence (SS) and was generated by PCR of codon optimized cDNA fragments (FIG. 1).

Infectious virus was recovered as described above. In contrast to the recombinant RABV expressing MERS-CoV S or deletion mutants thereof, BNSP333-S1 grew to titers similar to other recombinant RABV vectors, roughly 10⁸ FFU/mL.

To analyze incorporation of the chimeric glycoprotein into RABV particles, Vero cells were infected with BNSP333, BNSP333-S1, or a control virus expressing Ebola GP (BNSP333-GP) and virus particles purified as described above. SDS-PAGE analysis of the purified virions revealed a strong band of approximately 150 kDa in the supernatant of Vero cells infected with BNSP333-S1 (FIG. 5A), which reacted strongly with antibodies specific for the S1 subunit of MERS-CoV S and was absent in the control virus (FIG. 5B), indicating efficient incorporation of the S1-G fusion protein into BNSP333-S1 particles. All three viruses contained a similar amount of RABV G (FIG. 5C), indicating that the chimeric S1-G protein that lacks the S2 subunit no longer blocks transport and incorporates the RABV glycoprotein and would be a suitable vaccine candidate.

Example 6. BNSP333-S1 is Immunogenic in Mice and Protects Against Challenge with Pathogenic MERS-CoV

To analyze the immunogenicity of the BNSP333-S1, the inventors immunized 4 groups of BALB/c mice (5 mice per group) with 10 μg of BNSP333-GP (group1), 10 μg of BNSP333-S1 (groups 2 and 3), or PBS (group 4) at day 0, 7, and 21. The inventors followed the immune response against RABV G and MERS-CoV S by antigen-specific ELISAs. The antigen-specific IgG responses increased over time and after each immunization; high antibody levels were obtained against both RABV G and MERS-CoV S after the third inoculations. MERS-CoV-S specific immune responses were only detected in groups 2 and 3, but RABV G specific IgG was detected in groups 1-3 (data not shown). None of the animals of group 4, which were mock immunized, demonstrated immune responses against RABV G or MERS-CoV S protein, confirming the specificity of the ELISAs. Whereas the RABV G-specific ELISA titers are known to predict protection against RABV challenge, the protective abilities of the MERS-CoV S-directed antibodies are unknown. The inventors therefore performed VNA against MERS-CoV of sera on day 35 of the immunized mice of all four groups. The inventors detected no MERS-CoV neutralizing antibodies in the sera of mice from group 1 (BNSP333-GP; FIG. 6A) or mock (PBS) immunized mice (group 4; FIG. 6B), but the sera of mice immunized with BNSP333-S1 (group 2 and 3; FIGS. 6B and 6C) neutralized MERS-CoV at serum dilutions between 1:160 (7 mice) and 1:320 (3 mice).

Efficacy testing of the RABV-MERS vaccine was performed using the adenovirus-hDPP4 transduced mouse model. All four groups of mice were transduced, and after five days, mice in groups 1, 2, and 4 were challenged intranasally (IN) with MERS-CoV at 1×10⁵ pfu/mouse (strain Jordan-n3/2012). Four days after the challenge, the mice were euthanized, and their lungs were dissected, homogenized, and assayed for viral load by qRT-PCR and a viral plaque assay. For BNSP333-S1 immunized mice, both genomic and mRNA were reduced to background levels similar to those found in mice not transduced by the Ad5-expressing hDPP4 (Table 2). Moreover, the immunization with BNSP333-S1 reduced the viral load in the lungs to a level below detection of the assay (2.5×10², Table 3).

TABLE 2 RT-PCR for genomic RNA and mRNA after challenge with MERS-CoV. UpE mRNA Group MERS-CoV Standard Standard Immunization Challenge Mean Deviation Mean Deviation G1/FILORAB1 YES 17871.24 12935.90 506.73 353.30 G2/BNSP333-S1 YES 46.03 41.91 3.57 2.88 G3/BNSP333-S1 NO 23.52 25.97 1.83 2.17 G4/PBS YES 12047.57 3833.46 357.89 116.37

TABLE 3 Recovered MERS-CoV from lungs of mice immunized as indicated. Titer of recovered MERS-CoV Group MERS-CoV Standard Immunization Challenge Mean deviation G1/FILORAB1 YES 7.65 × 10⁶ 4.04 × 10² G2/BNSP333-S1 YES ND — G3/BNSP333-S1 NO ND — G4/PBS YES 7.65 × 10⁶ 2.09 × 10² ND = not detected (assay detection level is 2.5 × 10²)

Discussion of Examples 1-6

Various live and killed RABV vaccines expressing MERS-CoV S have been constructed and their S expression, safety, immunogenicity, and protective efficacy in mice have been compared. A novel RABV-based vaccine expressing MERS-CoV S1 protein as a potential vaccine against MERS-CoV is described herein. Similar to our previous vaccine approaches, the inventors expressed the target antigen for the vaccine (MERS-CoV S) from the highly attenuated vector RABV backbone BNSP333. However, MERS-CoV S expression dramatically reduced incorporation of RABV G into virions. Furthermore, RABV virions only contained a low amount of MERS-CoV S. Similar findings were observed with a VSV vector, where again the expression of MERS-CoV S from the genome led to low levels of VSV G in the virions (data not shown). These findings indicated that expression of MERS-CoV S interferes with the expression or transport of other viral glycoproteins.

Therefore, based on previous work in which the inventors successfully expressed different viral glycoproteins from RABV-based vectors and noticed only modest effects in viral replication kinetics and final titers, it was hypothesized that the retention of the MERS-CoV S protein prevented processing of RABV G in the ER and/or Golgi apparatus and possibly the transport to the cytoplasmic membrane. The alternative hypothesis that the heavy glycosylation of MERS-CoV S was responsible has been excluded based on the fact that both HIV-1 glycoprotein gp160 and Ebola virus GP are heavily glycosylated, but are well-expressed from RABV, and they are incorporated into virions without inhibiting RABV G incorporation.

Based on the hypothesis that ER retention of MERS-CoV S is responsible for the reduction of the RABV G transport to the surface, the potential ER retention signal of MERS-CoV was removed. It was determined that this slightly restored RABV G and MERS-CoV S expression, as well as the incorporation into RABV virions. These data indicated that MERS-CoV S expression can prevent RABV G transport. An alternative approach to the expression of the full-length MERS-CoV S was taken that focused on the expression of MERS-CoV S1, which contains the RBD; the RBD has been shown to be sufficient to induce VNA antibody against MERS-CoV. Because MERS-CoV S1 protein is secreted due to the lack of a membrane anchor, the proper signal to direct MERS-CoV S1 into budding RABV virions was added. Using the part of the RABV G ED containing the potential trimerization domain, in addition to the RABV G TM and CD, proved useful for the highly efficient incorporation of foreign glycoprotein into rhabdoviruses. In contrast to MERS-CoV S, the MERS-CoV S1 RABV G fusion protein was efficiently incorporated into the RABV virions.

A good small animal model is essential to vaccine research; however, in contrast to SARS-CoV, there is currently no good small animal model for MERS-CoV. MERS-CoV does not replicate in mice due to species-specific differences in the DPP4 receptor. Mouse DPP4 is very similar to the human DPP4, varying at only 62 positions out of 767 amino acids residues total (92% similarity), however, the differences tend to be on surface-exposed residues which might affect binding of MERS-CoV S protein to mouse DPP4. An alternative model system is the rhesus macaque. Rhesus macaques infected with MERS-CoV display some clinical signs like reduced appetite, and inflammatory infiltrates in the lung. The disease course, however, is mild compared to MERS-CoV infection in humans, and the animals do not succumb to infection. Therefore, the adenovirus transduced mouse model was utilized. This model expresses human DPP4 in the lungs after i.n. inoculation with an adenoviral vector followed by infection with MERS-CoV 5 days later. When used to test vaccination with inactivated RABV virions containing MERS-CoV S1, the results demonstrated that the vaccination was highly effective: it induced a strong humoral immune response against RABV-G, as well as MERS-CoV. Vaccination with the recombinant rabies vaccine reduced viral titer of MERS-CoV in the lungs of vaccinated animals below detection levels, whereas high viral loads were detected in control subjects.

The impact of cellular immune response for protection against MERS-CoV is less clear, but prior studies have shown that vaccination with DNA or a recombinant MVA expressing SARS-CoV S induces strong cellular responses. However, only adaptive transfer experiments of specific cellular populations will allow a final conclusion of the effect of cellular immune responses against MERS-CoV infection.

A live RABV-based vaccine will probably not be considered for human use, but it is highly effective and safe for different animal species; it is a valid option for animal vaccines, which are currently being analyzed for a RABV-based EBOV vaccine. Based on our study, the inactivated rabies virus vaccine incorporating MERS-CoV S1 now has demonstrated efficacy in the adenovirus-DPP4 mouse model of MERS and appears to be promising for further MERS-CoV vaccine studies. The RABV vector itself has an excellent safety record, and more than 20 million individuals have been immunized against RABV. A similar inactivated vaccine is currently advancing to a phase 1 study for Ebola virus disease, FILORAB1, so additional safety data will become available in the near future.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE SEQUENCE LISTING

Below is a summary of the sequences found in the Sequence Listing:

SEQ ID NO: 1—Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) Genome found in NCBI Reference No. NC_019843;

SEQ ID NO: 2—MERS-CoV Spike DNA sequence with NCBI Reference No. NC 019843.3;

SEQ ID NO: 3—MERS-CoV Spike protein sequence with GenBank Accession No. AHX00731.1;

SEQ ID NO: 4—MERS-CoV Spike protein sequence with GenBank Accession No. AHX00721.1;

SEQ ID NO: 5—Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV) Spike protein sequence for strain Shanghai QXC12 with GenBank Accession No. AAR86788.1;

SEQ ID NO: 6—SARS-CoV Spike protein sequence for strain ShanghaiQXC2 with GenBank Reference No. AAR86775.1;

SEQ ID NO: 7—DNA sequence of S1 insert of BNSP333-S1 with Accession No. KU696644 (please note that this sequence is nucleotides 1462-4005 of SEQ ID NO: 21);

SEQ ID NO: 8—protein sequence of S1 insert of BNSP333-S1;

SEQ ID NO: 9—DNA sequence of S of BNSP333-S with GenBank Accession No. KU KU696640 (please note that this sequence is nucleotides 1462-5523 of SEQ ID NO: 22);

SEQ ID NO: 10—protein sequence of S of BNSP333-S;

SEQ ID NO: 11—DNA sequence of SΔ29 of BNSP333-Sde129 with GenBank Accession No. KU696643 (please note that this sequence is nucleotides 1562-5436 of SEQ ID NO: 23);

SEQ ID NO: 12—protein sequence of SΔ29 of BNSP333-SΔ29;

SEQ ID NO: 13—DNA sequence of SΔ19 of BNSP333-SΔ19 with GenBank Accession No. KY696642 (please note that this sequence is nucleotides 1462-5466 of SEQ ID NO: 24);

SEQ ID NO: 14—protein sequence of SΔ19 of BNSP333-SΔ19;

SEQ ID NO: 15—Rabies virus G glycoprotein DNA sequence with GenBank Accesion No. E02022.1;

SEQ ID NO: 16—Rabies virus G glycoprotein protein sequence with GenBank Accession No. AAA47213.1;

SEQ ID NO: 17—DNA sequence of TRFC forward primer;

SEQ ID NO: 18—DNA sequence of TRFC reverse primer;

SEQ ID NO: 19—DNA sequence of TRFC probe, which is as follows (fluorochrome) ABY-ATCAGGGATATGGGTCTAAGTCTACAGTGG-QSY (quencher);

SEQ ID NO: 20—SAD B19 genome sequence;

SEQ ID NO: 21—BNSP333-S1 genome sequence;

SEQ ID NO: 22—BNSP333-S genome sequence;

SEQ ID NO: 23—BNSP333-SΔ29 genome sequence; and

SEQ ID NO: 24—BNSP333-SΔ19 genome sequence.

SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS

According to an aspect, the present disclosure provides a recombinant rabies virus vector comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof of at least one coronavirus.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the at least one immunogenic glycoprotein fragment is a truncation of a coronavirus glycoprotein.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the at least one immunogenic glycoprotein fragment is a c-terminal truncation of a spike protein.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the truncation includes the deletion of from about 15 to about 25 amino acids from the c-terminus.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the truncation includes the deletion of about 19 amino acids from the c-terminus.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the immunogenic glycoprotein fragment includes the S1 domain of a spike protein.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the coronavirus is Middle East Respiratory Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) or Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV).

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the immunogenic glycoprogein fragment is a chimeric protein including an immunogenic glycoprotein fragment and a membrane anchor from a virus other than a coronavirus.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the membrane anchor is from a RABV glycoprotein.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the membrane anchor includes at least a portion of at least one of the ectodomain, the transmembrane domain, and the cytoplasmic domain of the RABV glycoprotein.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, an amino acid sequence of the at least one immunogenic glycoprotein fragment is selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 8, 12, or 14.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the rabies virus genome is attenuated.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the rabies virus vector is derived from the live attenuated SAD B19 RABV vaccine.

According to another aspect, the present disclosure provides a host cell comprising the recombinant rabies virus vector of the present disclosure.

According to a further aspect, the present disclosure provides an isolated virion prepared from a host cell infected with the recombinant rabies virus vector of the present disclosure.

According to yet another aspect, the present disclosure provides a multivalent vaccine effective to protect against both rabies and at least one coronavirus, comprising a recombinant rabies virus vector that expresses at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof of at least one coronavirus.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the coronavirus is at least one of MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV, or both.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof is of a coronavirus spike glycoprotein.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof has an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 8, 12, or 14.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the rabies virus genome is attenuated.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the rabies virus genome is derived from the live attenuated SAD B19 RABV vaccine.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the rabies virus genome further expresses one or more additional coronavirus protein or immunogenic fragment thereof.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the additional coronavirus protein is selected from the group consisting of a replicase polyprotein, E protein, N protein, M protein, or nonstructural proteins from MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV.

According to yet a further aspect, the present disclosure provides a host cell comprising the multivalent vaccine of the present disclosure.

According to an aspect, the present disclosure provides an isolated virion prepared from host cells infected with the multivalent vaccine of the present disclosure.

According a yet another aspect, the present disclosure provides a vaccine composition comprising one or more multivalent vaccine of the present disclosure and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the vaccine composition further comprising at least one additional therapeutic agent.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the therapeutic agent is at least one of an anti-viral drug, anti-viral antibody, an immunostimulatory agent, an adjuvant, or a combination thereof.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the therapeutic agent is (i) an anti-viral drug, and (ii) an anti-viral antibody, an immunostimulatory agent, and/or an adjuvant.

According to an aspect, the present disclosure provides a virus vaccine comprising an attenuated recombinant rabies virus vector which expresses a MERS-CoV glycoprotein or a fragment thereof, wherein the virus vaccine is protective against both a rabies virus infection and a MERS-CoV infection.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the MERS-CoV glycoprotein or a fragment thereof comprises an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 8, 12 or 14.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the recombinant rabies virus vector is derived from SAD B19 RABV vaccine.

According to an additional aspect, the present disclosure provides a method of inducing an immune response protective against a coronavirus and/or a rabies virus in a subject, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a multivalent vaccine comprising a recombinant rabies virus vector that expresses at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof from at least one coronavirus.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof is a MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV glycoprotein or fragment thereof.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the at least one coronavirus is MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the at least one immunogenic fragment comprises an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 8, 12, or 14.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the rabies virus vector is attenuated.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the rabies virus vector is inactivated.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the rabies virus vector is derived from the live attenuated SAD B19 RABV vaccine.

According to another aspect, the present disclosure provides a method of inducing neutralizing antibodies against coronavirus and/or a rabies virus in a subject infected with or having been exposed to either or both of said viruses, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a multivalent vaccine comprising a recombinant rabies virus vector that expresses at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof of at least one coronavirus.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof is derived from a MERS-CoV or a SARS-CoV.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the at least one coronavirus is MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the at least one fragment has an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 8, 12, or 14.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the rabies virus vector is attenuated.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the rabies virus vector is derived from the live attenuated SAD B19 RABV vaccine.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the rabies virus vector is inactivated.

According to an aspect, the present disclosure provides a method of treating a subject infected with a coronavirus and/or a rabies virus, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a multivalent vaccine comprising a recombinant rabies virus vector that expresses at least one coronavirus immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof, wherein said vaccine induces an effective immune response against one or both of said viruses.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment is derived from a MERS-CoV glycoprotein or a SARS-CoV glycoprotein.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the at least one coronavirus glycoprotein or fragment thereof has an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 8, 12, or 14.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the rabies virus vector is attenuated.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the rabies virus vector is inactivated.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the rabies virus vector is derived from the live attenuated SAD B19 RABV vaccine.

According to another aspect, the present disclosure provides a live, replication-competent, rabies virus based vector expressing at least one glycoprotein or fragment thereof derived from at least one coronavirus.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the vector has the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 21, 23, or 24.

According to yet another aspect, the present disclosure provides a live, replication-deficient, rabies virus based vector expressing at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof derived from at least one coronavirus glycoprotein.

In any aspect or embodiment described herein, the vector has the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 21, 23, or 24.

While the present disclosure has been described in some detail, including preferred embodiments of the present disclosure, for purposes of clarity and understanding, one skilled in the art will appreciate that various changes in form and detail can be made without departing from the true scope of the disclosure. As such, it is to be understood that the disclosure defined by the above paragraphs is not to be limited to particular details set forth in the above description as many apparent variations thereof are possible without departing from the spirit or scope of the present disclosure.

REFERENCES

All documents cited in this list of References, and all documents cited or referenced in the herein cited documents, together with any manufacturer's instructions, descriptions, product specifications, and product sheets for any products mentioned herein or in any document incorporated by reference herein, are hereby incorporated by reference, and may be employed in the practice of the invention.

-   1 Milne-Price S, Miazgowicz K L, Munster V J. 2014. The emergence of     the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Pathog Dis     71:121-136. -   2. Zaki A M, van Boheemen S, Bestebroer T M, Osterhaus A D, Fouchier     R A. 2012. Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with     pneumonia in Saudi Arabia. N Engl J Med 367:1814-1820. -   3. Anonymous. 2013. WHO Statement on the third meeting of the IHR     Emergency committee concerning Middle East respiratory syndrome     coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Wkly Epidemiol Rec 88:435-436. -   4. Memish Z A, Zumla A I, Assiri A. 2013. Middle East respiratory     syndrome coronavirus infections in health care workers. N Engl J Med     369:884-886. -   5. Drosten C, Kellam P, Memish Z A. 2014. Evidence for     camel-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus. N Engl J Med     371:1359-1360. -   6. Madani T A, Azhar E I, Hashem A M. 2014. Evidence for     camel-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus. N Engl J Med     371:1360. -   7. Azhar E I, El-Kafrawy S A, Farraj S A, Hassan A M, Al-Saeed M S,     Hashem A M, Madani T A. 2014. Evidence for camel-to-human     transmission of MERS coronavirus. N Engl J Med 370:2499-2505. -   8. Khan A, Farooqui A, Guan Y, Kelvin D J. 2015. Lessons to learn     from MERS-CoV outbreak in South Korea. J Infect Dev Ctries     9:543-546. -   9. Park H Y, Lee E J, Ryu Y W, Kim Y, Kim H, Lee H, Yi S J. 2015.     Epidemiological investigation of MERS-CoV spread in a single     hospital in South Korea, May to June 2015. Euro Surveill 20:1-6. -   10. Petersen E, Pollack M M, Madoff L C. 2014. Health-care associate     transmission of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Corona virus,     MERS-CoV, in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Int J Infect Dis     29:299-300. -   11. Cauchemez S, Van Kerkhove M D, Riley S, Donnelly C A, Fraser C,     Ferguson N M. 2013. Transmission scenarios for Middle East     Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) and how to tell them     apart. Euro Surveill 18. -   12. Chan P K, Ma S, Ngai S M. 2011. Identification of T-cell     epitopes of SARS-coronavirus for development of peptide-based     vaccines and cellular immunity assessment methods. Hong Kong Med J     17 Suppl 6:26-30. -   13. Roper R L, Rehm K E. 2009. SARS vaccines: where are we? Expert     Rev Vaccines 8:887-898. -   14. Zhu X, Liu Q, Du L, Lu L, Jiang S. 2013. Receptor-binding domain     as a target for developing SARS vaccines. J Thorac Dis 5 Suppl     2:S142-148. -   15. Du L, Jiang S. 2015. Middle East respiratory syndrome: current     status and future prospects for vaccine development. Expert Opin     Biol Ther 15:1647-1651. -   16. Volz A, Kupke A, Song F, Jany S, Fux R, Shams-Eldin H, Schmidt     J, Becker C, Eickmann M, Becker S, Sutter G. 2015. Protective     Efficacy of Recombinant Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara Delivering     Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Spike Glycoprotein. J     Virol 89:8651-8656. -   17. Ma C, Wang L, Tao X, Zhang N, Yang Y, Tseng C T, Li F, Zhou Y,     Jiang S, Du L. 2014. Searching for an ideal vaccine candidate among     different MERS coronavirus receptor-binding fragments—the importance     of immunofocusing in subunit vaccine design. Vaccine 32:6170-6176. -   18. Ma C, Li Y, Wang L, Zhao G, Tao X, Tseng C T, Zhou Y, Du L,     Jiang S. 2014. Intranasal vaccination with recombinant     receptor-binding domain of MERS-CoV spike protein induces much     stronger local mucosal immune responses than subcutaneous     immunization: Implication for designing novel mucosal MERS vaccines.     Vaccine 32:2100-2108. -   19. Muthumani K, Falzarano D, Reuschel E L, Tingey C, Flingai S,     Villarreal D O, Wise M, Patel A, Izmirly A, Aljuaid A, Seliga A M,     Soule G, Morrow M, Kraynyak K A, Khan A S, Scott D P, Feldmann F,     LaCasse R, Meade-White K, Okumura A, Ugen K E, Sardesai N Y, Kim J     J, Kobinger G, Feldmann H, Weiner D B. 2015. A synthetic consensus     anti-spike protein DNA vaccine induces protective immunity against     Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in nonhuman primates.     Sci Transl Med 7:301ra132. -   20. Coleman C M, Liu Y V, Mu H, Taylor J K, Massare M, Flyer D C,     Glenn G M, Smith G E, Frieman M B. 2014. Purified coronavirus spike     protein nanoparticles induce coronavirus neutralizing antibodies in     mice. Vaccine 32:3169-3174. -   21. Mou H, Raj V S, van Kuppeveld F J, Rottier P J, Haagmans B L,     Bosch B J. 2013. The receptor binding domain of the new Middle East     respiratory syndrome coronavirus maps to a 231-residue region in the     spike protein that efficiently elicits neutralizing antibodies. J     Virol 87:9379-9383. -   22. Du L, Zhao G, Kou Z, Ma C, Sun S, Poon V K, Lu L, Wang L,     Debnath A K, Zheng B J, Zhou Y, Jiang S. 2013. Identification of a     receptor-binding domain in the S protein of the novel human     coronavirus Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus as an     essential target for vaccine development. J Virol 87:9939-9942. -   23. Zhang N, Channappanavar R, Ma C, Wang L, Tang J, Garron T, Tao     X, Tasneem S, Lu L, Tseng C T, Zhou Y, Perlman S, Jiang S,     Du L. 2015. Identification of an ideal adjuvant for receptor-binding     domain-based subunit vaccines against Middle East respiratory     syndrome coronavirus. Cell Mol Immunol doi:10.1038/cmi.2015.03. -   24. Yang Y, Deng Y, Wen B, Wang H, Meng X, Lan J, Gao G F,     Tan W. 2014. The amino acids 736-761 of the MERS-CoV spike protein     induce neutralizing antibodies: implications for the development of     vaccines and antiviral agents. Viral Immunol 27:543-550. -   25. Kim E, Okada K, Kenniston T, Raj V S, AlHajri M M, Farag E A,     AlHajri F, Osterhaus A D, Haagmans B L, Gambotto A. 2014.     Immunogenicity of an adenoviral-based Middle East Respiratory     Syndrome coronavirus vaccine in BALB/c mice. Vaccine 32:5975-5982. -   26. Guo X, Deng Y, Chen H, Lan J, Wang W, Zou X, Hung T, Lu Z,     Tan W. 2015. Systemic and mucosal immunity in mice elicited by a     single immunization with human adenovirus type 5 or 41 vector-based     vaccines carrying the spike protein of Middle East respiratory     syndrome coronavirus. Immunology 145:476-484. -   27. Pfaller C K, Cattaneo R, Schnell M J. 2015. Reverse genetics of     Mononegavirales: How they work, new vaccines, and new cancer     therapeutics. Virology (60 year edition), accepted. -   28. Willet M, Kurup D, Papaneri A, Wirblich C, Hooper J W, Kwilas S     A, Keshwara R, Hudacek A, Beilfuss S, Rudolph G, Pommerening E, Vos     A, Neubert A, Jahrling P, Blaney J E, Johnson R F, Schnell     M J. 2015. Preclinical Development of Inactivated Rabies Virus-Based     Polyvalent Vaccine Against Rabies and Filoviruses. J Infect Dis     doi:10.1093/infdis/jiv251. -   29. Huttner A, Dayer J A, Yerly S, Combescure C, Auderset F,     Desmeules J, Eickmann M, Finckh A, Goncalves A R, Hooper J W, Kaya     G, Krahling V, Kwilas S, Lemaitre B, Matthey A, Silvera P, Becker S,     Fast P E, Moorthy V, Kieny M P, Kaiser L, Siegrist C A, Consortium     VS-E. 2015. The effect of dose on the safety and immunogenicity of     the VSV Ebola candidate vaccine: a randomised double-blind,     placebo-controlled phase 1/2 trial. Lancet Infect Dis 15:1156-1166. -   30. Blaney J E, Marzi A, Willet M, Papaneri A B, Wirblich C,     Feldmann F, Holbrook M, Jahrling P, Feldmann H, Schnell M J. 2013.     Antibody quality and protection from lethal Ebola virus challenge in     nonhuman primates immunized with rabies virus based bivalent     vaccine. PLoS Pathog 9:e1003389. -   31. Blaney J E, Wirblich C, Papaneri A B, Johnson R F, Myers C J,     Juelich T L, Holbrook M R, Freiberg A N, Bernbaum J G, Jahrling P B,     Paragas J, Schnell M J. 2011. Inactivated or live-attenuated     bivalent vaccines that confer protection against rabies and Ebola     viruses. J Virol 85:10605-10616. -   32. Papaneri A B, Wirblich C, Cann J A, Cooper K, Jahrling P B,     Schnell M J, Blaney J E. 2012. A replication-deficient rabies virus     vaccine expressing Ebola virus glycoprotein is highly attenuated for     neurovirulence. Virology 434:18-26. -   33. Papaneri A B, Wirblich C, Cooper K, Jahrling P B, Schnell M J,     Blaney J E. 2012. Further characterization of the immune response in     mice to inactivated and live rabies vaccines expressing Ebola virus     glycoprotein. Vaccine 30:6136-6141. -   34. Cliquet F, Aubert M. 2004. Elimination of terrestrial rabies in     Western European countries. Dev Biol (Basel) 119:185-204. -   35. WHO. 2015. Rabies, Fact Sheet #99. -   36. McGettigan J P, Pomerantz R J, Siler C A, McKenna P M, Foley H     D, Dietzschold B, Schnell M J. 2003. Second-generation rabies     virus-based vaccine vectors expressing human immunodeficiency virus     type 1 gag have greatly reduced pathogenicity but are highly     immunogenic. J Virol 77:237-244. -   37. Papaneri A B, Wirblich C, Marissen W E, Schnell M J. 2013.     Alanine scanning of the rabies virus glycoprotein antigenic site III     using recombinant rabies virus: implication for post-exposure     treatment. Vaccine 31:5897-5902. -   38. Kurup D, Wirblich C, Feldmann H, Marzi A, Schnell M J. 2014.     Rhabdoviral-Based Vaccine Platforms against Henipaviruses. J Virol     doi:10.1128/JVI.02308-14. -   39. Zhao J, Li K, Wohlford-Lenane C, Agnihothram S S, Fett C, Gale M     J, Jr., Baric R S, Enjuanes L, Gallagher T, McCray P B, Jr.,     Perlman S. 2014. Rapid generation of a mouse model for Middle East     respiratory syndrome. Proceedings of the National Academy of     Sciences of the United States of America 111:4970-4975. -   40. Pascal K E, Coleman C M, Mujica A O, Kamat V, Badithe A,     Fairhurst J, Hunt C, Strein J, Berrebi A, Sisk J M, Matthews K L,     Babb R, Chen G, Lai K M, Huang T T, Olson W, Yancopoulos G D, Stahl     N, Frieman M B, Kyratsous C A. 2015. Pre- and postexposure efficacy     of fully human antibodies against Spike protein in a novel humanized     mouse model of MERS-CoV infection. Proceedings of the National     Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 112:8738-8743. -   41. Coleman C M, Frieman M B. 2015. Growth and Quantification of     MERS-CoV Infection. Current protocols in microbiology 37:15E 12     11-19. -   42. Conzelmann K K, Cox J H, Schneider L G, Thiel H J. 1990.     Molecular cloning and complete nucleotide sequence of the attenuated     rabies virus SAD B19. Virology 175:485-499. -   43. Hudacek A W, Al-Saleem F H, Willet M, Eisemann T, Mattis J A,     Simpson L L, Schnell M J. 2014. Recombinant rabies virus particles     presenting botulinum neurotoxin antigens elicit a protective humoral     response in vivo. Molecular Therapy-Methods & Clinical Development     1. -   44. McGettigan J P, Naper K, Orenstein J, Koser M, McKenna P M,     Schnell M J. 2003. Functional human immunodeficiency virus type 1     (HIV-1) Gag-Pol or HIV-1 Gag-Pol and env expressed from a single     rhabdovirus-based vaccine vector genome. J Virol 77:10889-10899. -   45. Lontok E, Corse E, Machamer C E. 2004. Intracellular targeting     signals contribute to localization of coronavirus spike proteins     near the virus assembly site. J Virol 78:5913-5922. -   46. Schwegmann-Wessels C, Glende J, Ren X, Qu X, Deng H, Enjuanes L,     Herrler G. 2009. Comparison of vesicular stomatitis virus     pseudotyped with the S proteins from a porcine and a human     coronavirus. J Gen Virol 90:1724-1729. -   47. Fukushi S, Mizutani T, Saijo M, Matsuyama S, Miyajima N, Taguchi     F, Itamura S, Kurane I, Morikawa S. 2005. Vesicular stomatitis virus     pseudotyped with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus spike     protein. J Gen Virol 86:2269-2274. -   48. Smith M E, Koser M, Xiao S, Siler C, McGettigan J P, Calkins C,     Pomerantz R J, Dietzschold B, Schnell M J. 2006. Rabies virus     glycoprotein as a carrier for anthrax protective antigen. Virology     353:344-356. -   49. McKenna P M, Pomerantz R J, Dietzschold B, McGettigan J P,     Schnell M J. 2003. Covalently linked human immunodeficiency virus     type 1 gp120/gp41 is stably anchored in rhabdovirus particles and     exposes critical neutralizing epitopes. J Virol 77:12782-12794. -   50. Siler C A, McGettigan J P, Dietzschold B, Herrine S K, Dubuisson     J, Pomerantz R J, Schnell M J. 2002. Live and killed     rhabdovirus-based vectors as potential hepatitis C vaccines.     Virology 292:24-34. -   51. Schnell M J, Foley H D, Siler C A, McGettigan J P, Dietzschold     B, Pomerantz R J. 2000. Recombinant rabies virus as potential     live-viral vaccines for HIV-1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:3544-3549. -   52. Winter C, Schwegmann-Wessels C, Neumann U, Herrler G. 2008. The     spike protein of infectious bronchitis virus is retained     intracellularly by a tyrosine motif J Virol 82:2765-2771. -   53. Schwegmann-Wessels C, Ren X, Herrler G. 2006. Intracellular     transport of the S proteins of coronaviruses. Adv Exp Med Biol     581:271-275. -   54. Schwegmann-Wessels C, Al-Falah M, Escors D, Wang Z, Zimmer G,     Deng H, Enjuanes L, Naim H Y, Herrler G. 2004. A novel sorting     signal for intracellular localization is present in the S protein of     a porcine coronavirus but absent from severe acute respiratory     syndrome-associated coronavirus. J Biol Chem 279:43661-43666. -   55. Coleman C M, Matthews K L, Goicochea L, Frieman M B. 2013. Wild     type and innate immune deficient mice are not susceptible to the     Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus. J Gen Virol     doi:10.1099/vir.0.060640-0. -   56. May 18, 2013. 16. Pneumonia from Human Coronavirus in a Macaque     Model. N Engl J Med, 368.1560-1562.     http://www.nejm.org/doi/abs/10.1056/NEJMc1215691. -   57. Wang L, Shi W, Joyce M G, Modjarrad K, Zhang Y, Leung K, Lees C     R, Zhou T, Yassine H M, Kanekiyo M, Yang Z Y, Chen X, Becker M M,     Freeman M, Vogel L, Johnson J C, Olinger G, Todd J P, Bagci U,     Solomon J, Mollura D J, Hensley L, Jahrling P, Denison M R, Rao S S,     Subbarao K, Kwong P D, Mascola J R, Kong W P, Graham B S. 2015.     Evaluation of candidate vaccine approaches for MERS-CoV. Nat Commun     6:7712. 

1. A recombinant rabies virus vector comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof of at least one coronavirus.
 2. The recombinant rabies virus vector of claim 1, wherein the at least one immunogenic glycoprotein fragment is selected from the group consisting of: a truncation of a coronavirus glycoprotein and a C-terminal truncation of a spike protein.
 3. (canceled)
 4. The recombinant rabies virus vector of claim 2, wherein the truncation includes at least one selected from the group consisting of (a) the deletion of from about 15 to about 25 amino acids from the c-terminus (b) and the deletion of about 19 amino acids from the C-terminus.
 5. (canceled)
 6. The recombinant rabies virus vector of claim 1, wherein the immunogenic glycoprotein fragment includes the S1 domain of a spike protein.
 7. The recombinant rabies virus vector of claim 1, wherein the coronavirus is Middle East Respiratory Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) or Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV).
 8. The recombinant rabies virus vector of claim 1, wherein the immunogenic glycoprotein fragment is a chimeric protein including an immunogenic glycoprotein fragment and a membrane anchor from a virus other than a coronavirus.
 9. The recombinant rabies virus vector of claim 8, wherein the membrane anchor is from a RABV glycoprotein.
 10. The recombinant rabies virus vector of claim 9, wherein the membrane anchor includes at least a portion of at least one of the ectodomain, the transmembrane domain, the cytoplasmic domain of the RABV glycoprotein, or a combination thereof.
 11. The recombinant rabies virus vector of claim 1, wherein an amino acid sequence of the at least one immunogenic glycoprotein fragment is selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 8, 12, or
 14. 12. The recombinant rabies virus vector of claim 1, wherein the rabies virus genome is attenuated.
 13. The recombinant rabies virus vector of claim 1, wherein the rabies virus vector is derived from the live attenuated SAD B19 RABV vaccine.
 14. A host cell comprising the recombinant rabies virus vector of claim
 1. 15. An isolated virion prepared from a host cell infected with the recombinant rabies virus vector of claim
 1. 16. A multivalent vaccine effective to protect against both rabies and at least one coronavirus, comprising the recombinant rabies virus vector of claim
 1. 17. (canceled)
 18. (canceled)
 19. (canceled)
 20. (canceled)
 21. (canceled)
 22. The multivalent vaccine according to claim 16, wherein the rabies virus genome further expresses one or more additional coronavirus protein or immunogenic fragment thereof.
 23. The multivalent vaccine according to claim 22, wherein the additional coronavirus protein is selected from the group consisting of a replicase polyprotein, E protein, N protein, M protein, or nonstructural proteins from MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV.
 24. (canceled)
 25. (canceled)
 26. A vaccine composition comprising one or more multivalent vaccine of claim 16 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 27. The vaccine composition according to claim 26, further comprising at least one additional therapeutic agent.
 28. The vaccine composition according to claim 27, wherein the therapeutic agent is at least one of an anti-viral drug, an anti-viral antibody, an immunostimulatory agent, an adjuvant, or a combination thereof.
 29. (canceled)
 30. (canceled)
 31. (canceled)
 32. A method of inducing an immune response protective against a coronavirus and/or a rabies virus in a subject, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a multivalent vaccine comprising a recombinant rabies virus vector of claim
 1. 33. (canceled)
 34. (canceled)
 35. (canceled)
 36. (canceled)
 37. (canceled)
 38. (canceled)
 39. A method of inducing neutralizing antibodies against coronavirus and/or a rabies virus in a subject infected with or having been exposed to either or both of said viruses, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a multivalent vaccine of claim
 16. 40. (canceled)
 41. (canceled)
 42. (canceled)
 43. (canceled)
 44. (canceled)
 45. (canceled)
 46. A method of treating a subject infected with a coronavirus and/or a rabies virus, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a multivalent vaccine of claim 16, wherein said vaccine induces an effective immune response against one or both of said viruses.
 47. (canceled)
 48. (canceled)
 49. (canceled)
 50. (canceled)
 51. (canceled)
 52. A live, replication-competent, rabies virus based vector expressing at least one glycoprotein or fragment thereof derived from at least one coronavirus.
 53. The vector according to claim 52, wherein the vector has the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 21, 23, or
 24. 54. A live, replication-deficient, rabies virus based vector expressing at least one immunogenic glycoprotein or fragment thereof derived from at least one coronavirus glycoprotein.
 55. The vector according to claim 54, wherein the vector has the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 21, 23, or
 24. 